India - Goa - Drying peppers in front of the house

Color illustration of a pepper plant (Capsicum annuum L.). This spice, native to South and Central America, is now cultivated in most tropical countries, particularly in Indonesia. In more temperate regions, such as Southern Europe, however, the cultivation of the milder vegetable variety known as bell pepper has gained greater importance. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

The photo shows ripe, red chili peppers (Capsicum annuum variety), which are commonly sold under the names “peperoni” or “cayenne.” These elongated peppers typically have a moderate to strong heat level. They are excellent for fresh salsas, hot sauces, stir-fry dishes, or for drying to make homemade chili powder. Red chili peppers are rich in vitamins A and C. The active ingredient capsaicin not only provides the heat but also boosts the metabolism. - 1990

A large quantity of fresh green chili peppers. These peppers are characterized by their slender, elongated shape and intense heat. - 1990

Freshly harvested chili peppers at various stages of ripeness. – 1990

Like all chili peppers worldwide, these varieties originated in Central and South America. Archaeological findings show that indigenous peoples in regions of present-day Mexico and Brazil were already using and cultivating wild varieties of this plant thousands of years ago. It wasn’t until the 15th and 16th centuries that Spanish and Portuguese sailors brought the hot peppers to Europe, Africa, and Asia, where they quickly became a staple of local cuisines. – 1990

At the market in Jodhpur, local farmers sell their own produce, including red chili peppers and eggplants. – 1990

Color chart of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), the most important species of the genus Piper in the pepper family. The genus Piper comprises about two thousand species, only a few of which are used as spices. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Black peppercorns (Piper nigrum). These are the dried, unripe fruits of the pepper plant. During the sun-drying process, the outer skin shrinks and turns dark brown to black. – 1990

The fruits and leaves of the true pepper plant (Piper nigrum). Depending on the time of harvest and processing method, this tropical vine yields the familiar black, green, white, and red peppercorns. Green pepper: Harvested unripe and either pickled fresh or quickly dried. Black pepper: Also harvested green, but ferments during slow drying in the sun, causing the skin to wrinkle and turn black. - 1990

The berries have changed color from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep-green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stem encircles the strongly branched shoot. White pepper: Fully ripe, red berries are harvested for this. After soaking in water, the outer pulp is removed, leaving only the light-colored seed. - 1990

Pepper harvest in the Cardamom Hills near Thekkadi, a small town in the southwestern Indian state of Kerala. The slopes of these hills are sparsely covered with deciduous trees, whose trunks are enveloped by the dense foliage of the pepper bushes. Pepper is a climbing plant that—much like wild grapevines or ivy—grows upward on trees and rock faces using its tough, supple tendrils and adhesive aerial roots. To harvest the long clusters of pepper berries, the picker uses a sturdy bamboo pole—on which he has trimmed the side shoots to the width of a step—as a ladder. – 1990

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is produced by harvesting the unripe, green berries of the pepper bush and then drying them. During the drying process, the berries ferment, shrivel, and take on their characteristic dark brown to black color. The spice’s typical, pungent flavor comes from the alkaloid piperine it contains. – 1990

All over Java, you come across fields of pepper plants, on which the pods hang, first green, then yellow and finally red, and which are an indispensable part of the islanders' diet. The undemanding plant thrives particularly well in the fertile volcanic soil. Incidentally, pepper plants are the only spice plants that contain high levels of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and carotenoids (provitamin A). – 1990

A woman picks green chillies near Majenang / Cilacap – 1990

Little by little, the bucket fills with green peppers. Near Majenang / Cilacap – 1990

Red chillies at the spice market in Yogyakarta. - The best place to buy spices in Yogyakarta is the traditional Pasar Beringharjo market. There you will find a wide selection of local spices, herbs, traditional ingredients for jamu (Indonesian herbal medicine) as well as coffee and tea. – 1990

Fresh green chillies are always popular at the market in Surabaya in north-east Java, as they serve as both a spice and a healthy vegetable. But peppers have other beneficial effects too. They are highly stimulating, aid digestion and have a laxative effect. Their active ingredient, capsaicin, is used in dentistry as a painkiller. And as a powerful antiseptic, peppers protect food from spoiling to a certain extent, which is particularly important in hot and humid tropical countries. – 1990

The colourful market in Tidore offers fruit, vegetables and, of course, spices such as chilli peppers. – Moluccas – 1990

Pepper pods on sale at the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Fresh chilli peppers at the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Chilli peppers, garlic, onions, limes, tomatoes – Market in Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

Chilli peppers, onions, ginger, turmeric, lemon verbena – Ambon market – Moluccas – 1990

At a market stall in Calicut, large jute sacks filled with bright red, dried chillies – a common sight in many Asian markets – are on display. – 1990

This and the next photograph show the pepper berries hanging in long spikes or clusters. When harvested unripe, they are processed into green peppercorns, which are sold in tins or in brine. On the right, the berries have changed colour from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stalk encircles the strongly branched shoot. - Cardamom Hills in the Thekkadi area - 1990

This photograph and the previous one show the pepper berries hanging in long spikes or clusters. When harvested unripe, they are processed into green peppercorns, which are sold in tins or in brine. On the right, the berries have changed colour from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stalk encircles the strongly branched shoot. - Cardamom Hills in the Thekkadi area - 1990

Pepper harvesting in the Cardamom Hills near Thekkadi, a small town in the south-western Indian state of Kerala. The slopes of these hills are sparsely covered with deciduous trees, their trunks enveloped by the dense foliage of the pepper bushes. Pepper is a climbing plant which – much like wild vines or ivy – grows upwards on trees and rock faces using its tough, supple tendrils and adhesive aerial roots. To harvest the long clusters of pepper berries, the picker uses a sturdy bamboo pole, from which he has trimmed the side shoots to the width of a step, as a ladder. - 1990

The harvested pepper berries are spread out on straw mats to dry, during which time they turn grey to blackish, thus producing black pepper. White pepper is the hulled variety. Like nutmeg and cloves, pepper is mainly grown by smallholders. They deliver their harvest to buyers, who then sell it on to wholesalers. – Cardamom Hills, in the Thekkadi region – 1990

A pepper buyer in Kozhikode, formerly Calicut, on the Malabar Coast in Kerala. He collects the harvest from smallholders; here, it gradually fills the thick sacks of pepper. In the days of the Spice Route, when pepper was weighed against gold in Europe, ‘pepper sack’ became a derogatory term for wealthy spice merchants. - 1990

A road near Karwar, a coastal town in the Indian state of Karnataka. The region is known for its picturesque setting at the mouth of the River Kali, but also for its agricultural traditions. Drying red chillies by the roadside is a common practice in this area to preserve the harvest. The dark asphalt of the roads absorbs the sun’s heat and acts as a natural drying tray, which speeds up the process. – 1990

Two Indian women are using the heat and sunshine to dry chillies in front of their house. The photograph was taken near the town of Margao on the south-west coast of India, in what was formerly Goa. This region was colonised in 1510 by the Portuguese navigator Alfonso de Albuquerque, at a time when Portugal was building its global empire. Goa subsequently became the capital of Portugal’s Asian colonies. Saint Francis Xavier converted the local population in 1542, during a journey that took him as far as Japan. In 1962, Goa was occupied and annexed by India, after the government had long demanded its return from Portugal in vain. Today, Goa, together with Daman and Diu, forms the territory of Panjim, covering approximately 4,000 square kilometres. Alongside iron and manganese ore mining, the region’s vibrant economic activity includes the textile industry, fishing and spice cultivation. Although pepper was absent here during the era of the Spice Route – as it originates from the New World – it is now cultivated here, as in most tropical countries. - 1990

At the market in Jodhpur, local farmers sell their own produce, in this case red chillies and aubergines. – 1990

A young trader sits behind a large pile of fresh green chillies at a market in Jodhpur. These are elongated, light-green chillies with a mild to medium heat, which are frequently used in Indian cuisine for stews or as a side dish (e.g. Mirchi Bajji or Jwala chillies). – 1990

Even in the desert, spice traders seek buyers for their wares; here, at the livestock market in Phalodi, they are selling dried chillies. In Indian cuisine, however, chillies are considered as much a vegetable as a spice. – 1990

An elderly woman sits on the ground operating a traditional mechanical beam balance. She is selling a variety of local vegetables, such as green chillies, aubergines and various leafy greens. – Jaisalmer Market – 1990

At a market in Jaisalmer, a young woman wearing a yellow sari is selling various vegetables: potatoes, onions, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, green chillies, spring onions, etc. – 1990

Red chillies are traditionally sun-dried. The intense sunlight draws the moisture out of them. This prevents mould from forming and allows the chillies to be stored for months or even years. This method also concentrates their flavour and heat. In the background are filled jute sacks. They are used to transport and store the dried chillies before they are sold at spice markets or processed into chilli powder. – Jaisalmer, Rajasthan – 1990

In Venice, the hub of the medieval spice trade, food shops still sell bunches of fiery hot peperoncini on the high street, in keeping with a centuries-old tradition. – 1989

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