The Kappad Reef on the Malabar Coast, four kilometres north of Calicut (now Kozhikode). It was here that Vasco da Gama became the first Portuguese man to set foot on Indian soil on 20 May 1498. In the years that followed, in their quest for spices and other treasures of the Orient, the Portuguese would extend their conquests as far as Indonesia and also gain a foothold in southern China. – 1990

The Malabar Coast at Vizhinjam Beach, twenty kilometres south of Trivandrum, the capital of the south-western Indian state of Kerala. On the beach, overlooked by a lighthouse, fishermen lay out their nets to dry. – 1990

These traditional wooden boats are typical of the coastal region around Vizhinjam Beach and are used for fishing in the Arabian Sea. On the beach, the fishermen lay out their long nets to dry. – 1990

In a quarry near Vizhinjam, close to Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram), the hard work is done using muscle power. – Kerala – 1990

A zebu pulls a traditional cart (also known as a bullock cart), heavily laden with coir rope. At that time, such carts were an essential means of transport for agricultural produce and goods. – Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) – 1990

This man is carrying a huge load of coconut fibre on his head. This scene is typical of rural areas in South Asia, particularly in India or Sri Lanka. The fibrous material is obtained from the outer husk of coconuts. Coconut fibre is a versatile natural product. It is used to make ropes, mats, brushes and even for soil improvement in agriculture. – Kerala – 1990

A sturdy wooden cart with large, iron-rimmed spoked wheels, drawn by two white oxen. It is heavily laden with numerous jute sacks, which probably contain grain, rice or other agricultural produce. – Kollam, near Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) – 1990

An impressive image that illustrates an extraordinary feat of physical strength. This man is balancing a large number of metal barrels on his head as he walks down a street. Even though the barrels are presumably empty, the volume and weight of the metal place a massive strain on his neck and back. – Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) – Kerala – 1990

A fascinating moment capturing the coexistence of tradition and modernity in India. It depicts a street scene typical of the country’s rural regions or smaller towns, where old and new modes of transport share the same space. The yellow lorry is a classic model from Tata Motors, recognisable by its distinctive logo. These vehicles are often artistically decorated with colourful patterns or religious symbols. In direct contrast to this is the traditional cart in the foreground. The driver sits calmly amongst his cargo, whilst the heavily laden oxen plough their way forward – a sight that has scarcely changed for centuries. - Kollam (Quilon) - Near Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) - 1990

The town of Quilon lies sixty kilometres north of Trivandrum, the capital of the south-western Indian state of Kerala, on the Malabar Coast. The planters still often transport their spice harvests – mainly pepper, chilli and cardamom – to the buyers in the town using old-fashioned ox-drawn carts. From Quilon, the sacks of spices are transported by lorry to Kerala’s main port, Cochin, situated 120 kilometres to the north, from where they are shipped all over the world. – 1990

This photograph shows a boat-building workshop in the backwaters region of Kollam (Quilon) in Kerala, India. It depicts wooden fishing boats that have been pulled ashore on rails for maintenance work. A distinctive feature of the region are the dense groves of palm trees in the background, which are typical of Kerala’s waterways. – Journey to Allepey – 1990

Traditional fishermen casting a cast net in the backwaters of Kerala, in south-west India. The scene captures a typical means of livelihood in this water-rich region, which is known for its extensive network of lakes, rivers and canals. The fishermen use handmade nets and traditional wooden boats, often known locally as valloms. For thousands of people in the villages across much of Kerala, fishing is the primary means of livelihood. – Kollam (Quilon) – 1990

Along the coasts and inland waterways of Kerala, such as here around Kollam, one finds the famous Chinese fishing nets (known locally as Cheena vala) in the backwaters of Kerala, India. These distinctive, permanently installed dip nets are an iconic symbol of the region. They are mechanical devices made of wooden or bamboo poles that lower a horizontal net into the water and raise it again using counterweights (often stones). It is believed that this fishing technique was originally brought to Kerala by Chinese traders in the 14th century. - Kollam (Quilon) - Journey towards Allepey - 1990

The famous Chinese fishing nets (known locally as Cheena vala) in Fort Kochi (Cochin), a historic coastal town in the Indian state of Kerala. These unique structures are stationary lift nets that are permanently installed on land. They are considered a landmark of the region and are a defining feature of the Malabar Coast. It is believed that the nets were introduced to the coast by Chinese merchants in the 13th or 14th century. The nets are attached to large wooden or bamboo structures. To operate them, four or more fishermen are often required to lower the net into the water and pull it back up using counterweights (often stones or sandbags). – 1990

In the backwaters of Kerala, fishermen use very narrow, traditional wooden boats (known as vallams) and often steer them through lagoons and canals whilst standing, using long poles, as seen here on the Poothotta River near Cochin – 1990

A scene from one of the most historic and bustling commercial hubs in Kozhikode (Calicut), Kerala. Hand-pulled carts remain an integral part of logistics in the market’s narrow alleys to this day. Whilst modern lorries bring goods into the city, these workers – often referred to as ‘coolies’ – handle the final distribution to the warehouses. The jute sacks on the cart most likely contain rice, dried fruit or spices, the typical goods traded in this district. – 1990

As the streets in Kumily’s market districts are often narrow and bustling, traders rely on the tremendous strength of manual labourers to transport goods to the warehouses. The sacks often contain valuable goods such as cardamom, pepper or cinnamon, which are harvested from the surrounding plantations of Kumily and Thekkady. Kumily is regarded as the region’s most important spice trading centre. – Kerala – 1990

The ‘R.D. Drug House’ is a well-known pharmaceutical retailer in the historic district of Mattancherry in Kochi (formerly Cochin), Kerala. The elaborately designed blue wooden door is a classic example of the blend of colonial and regional styles found in Mattancherry. Many of these old buildings originally served as spice warehouses. In India, pharmacies or wholesalers of medicines are often referred to as ‘Drug Houses’. – 1990

A market scene in Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram). A woman sorts fresh fruit into large baskets for sale. Street markets like this are common throughout India. – 1990

This woman from Cochin wears a distinctive red dot on her forehead, known as a bindi. Originally a symbol of the ‘third eye’ and spiritual protection in Hinduism, it is now often worn as a fashion accessory. The teardrop shape is a classic style. She is wearing gold earrings with delicate detailing and a red garment, likely a sari or a dupatta. – 1990

Market stall in Kochi (Cochin), Kerala. Such detailed displays of pulses, grains and seeds are characteristic of the city’s historic market districts. The bowls contain typical staple foods of Kerala: pulses (various types of lentils (dal), chickpeas, mung beans and pigeon peas), cereals (various types of rice, maize and millet) and seeds (coriander seeds, mustard seeds and cumin). – 1990

At a market stall in Calicut, large jute sacks filled with bright red, dried chillies – a common sight in many Asian markets – are on display. – 1990

That’s a rather creative and improvised bicycle horn! It consists of an old, circularly curved metal horn that has been attached to the handlebars and the frame of the bicycle with string. A rubber ball wrapped in fabric was attached to the end of the horn and sealed with a red rubber band. It’s a great example of ‘Jugaad’ – an Indian term that stands for creative problem-solving with limited resources. – Found at the market in Calicut – 1990

A freshly harvested ginger plant (Zingiber officinale). Shown here are the underground rhizome (the root tuber) and the long, green stems with lanceolate leaves. The tuber is the most commonly used part of the plant. Freshly harvested ginger has a very light, fine and thin skin, which often has purple hues. The harvest season begins when the above-ground parts of the plant start to die back. – Kerala – Kumily – 1990

A worker empties a jute sack of ginger roots onto a large tarpaulin to sort them or dry them further. Scenes like this are typical of the historic spice warehouses and factories in Calicut, which are renowned for their centuries-old spice trade. – 1990

A large quantity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) is poured out of a jute sack onto the ground. The ginger roots (rhizomes) are cleaned, often peeled, and dried in the sun. Ginger is used as an aromatic cooking spice, as a base for ginger tea, or is valued in traditional medicine for its medicinal properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

Freshly harvested turmeric root (botanical name Curcuma longa), also known as yellow root. The plant forms underground rhizomes, which have a characteristic, intense yellow to orange colour on the inside. Turmeric belongs to the ginger family and resembles ginger root in appearance, but is usually smaller and more intensely coloured. The strong colouring comes mainly from the substance curcumin. – Kerala – Kumily – 1990

The well-known curry powder is a blend of turmeric, cardamom, pepper, paprika, coriander and other aromatic ingredients, the composition of which varies in India depending on the region, caste and dish. In Kerala, the mixture is traditionally prepared using a stone hand mill. - 1990

A cardamom field in the Cardamom Hills, which stretch over three hundred kilometres inland from Kerala, running parallel to the Malabar Coast. Like most spices, the cardamom plant requires a hot, humid climate. It thrives in humus-rich but marshy soil, in the shade of evergreen trees. The rootstock consists of a sturdy tuber and fleshy roots, from which reed-like stems sprout, bearing lanceolate leaves up to fifty centimetres long that clasp the stem. The flowering shoots are shorter and form spikes up to fifty centimetres long near the ground, bearing greenish-white to purplish-violet flowers. These develop into egg-shaped fruits or capsules. – 1990

In the Cardamom Hills, an Indian woman is gathering cardamom seeds. The harvest is a delicate process: the pods must be picked just before they ripen, otherwise they will burst open and scatter their seeds. For this reason, they are cut off one by one with scissors, taking care not to damage unripe pods or new flowers. On average, a cardamom field yields two thousand kilograms of green fruit per hectare, which loses two-thirds of its weight during drying. – Kerala – 1990

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) originates from southern India and Sri Lanka and belongs to the ginger family. In India, it is grown particularly in the states of Kerala (e.g. in the Idukki district) and Tamil Nadu, in shaded gardens or plantations. The pod-like fruits are harvested by hand when they turn a bright green colour. Each pod contains small black seeds inside, which are responsible for the intense aroma. Cardamom is one of the world’s most valuable spices and is often referred to as ‘green gold’ due to its significance. – Kerala – 1990

This man is holding a bowl of fresh green cardamom pods. Cardamom is considered the third most expensive spice in the world, after saffron and vanilla. It is prized for its complex, aromatic flavour and is used in a variety of ways. Cardamom is an essential ingredient in curries, teas (such as masala chai), desserts and baked goods worldwide. In traditional medicine, it is valued for its digestive and anti-inflammatory properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

Cardamom is considered the third most expensive spice in the world, after saffron and vanilla. It is prized for its complex, aromatic flavour and is used in a variety of ways. Cardamom is an essential ingredient in curries, teas (such as masala chai), desserts and baked goods worldwide. In traditional medicine, it is valued for its digestive and anti-inflammatory properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

A woman manually sorting green cardamom pods in Thekkady, Kerala. The pods are sorted by size and quality, often using woven baskets. Premium quality is frequently marketed as ‘Handpicked Excellence’. – 1990

Women from Thekkady in Kerala sort and clean cardamom pods by hand. They use traditional, flat wicker baskets to ‘winnow’ the cardamom or sort it by hand according to size and colour. Green cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is regarded as the ‘queen of spices’ and is grown in the cooler mountainous regions of southern India, known as the Cardamom Hills. Harvesting and subsequent cleaning are carried out almost entirely by hand, making cardamom one of the world’s most expensive spices after saffron and vanilla. – 1990

A young woman stands in the entrance hall of a house next to an impressive, intricately carved wooden door. The door features a detailed pattern comprising several panels, each decorated with a circular sun wheel motif. – Kerala – Thekaddy – 1990

The portrait of the young woman in the doorway is an example of Maximilien Bruggmann’s sensitive portrait photography. The photograph was taken in Thekkady, in the Indian state of Kerala, in 1990.

This lively, traditional fruit and vegetable stall was photographed in Murukkady, in the state of Kerala. Clusters of bananas hang from the ceiling. Various fruits and vegetables are piled high in the woven baskets. The classic black men’s bicycle in the foreground is a typical means of transport for traders and customers alike. – 1990

A powerful image capturing three generations in a moment of everyday life. The women are wearing clothing typical of rural areas such as Murukkady in Kerala. The younger woman is wearing a classic red sari with a floral pattern. The child has a bindi on her forehead and is wearing black bracelets – traditional symbols often worn for protection or for cultural reasons. – 1990

Three children, probably siblings, in a rural, green setting. The bindi dots on their foreheads and their style of dress suggest they are from the Murukkady area. – Kerala – 1990

Murukkady in Kerala is widely known for its extensive spice and coffee plantations. The region offers ideal conditions for growing a variety of crops. Here, a woman is picking coffee; both Arabica and Robusta varieties are grown here. Visitors to Murukkady can witness the entire process, from the harvesting of the coffee cherries to their processing. As well as coffee, the area is famous for pepper and cardamom, whose scent permeates the air. Cloves, ginger and turmeric are also cultivated here. – 1990

A man rows a traditional wooden boat, resembling a dugout canoe, through the picturesque backwaters of the Indian state of Kerala, a region often referred to as ‘God’s Own Country’. The scene captures the tranquil, characteristic atmosphere of the narrow canals and lagoons, lined with dense groves of coconut palms. – Thrikkunnapuzha – 1990

This scene is typical of the waterways in the backwaters of Kerala. The boat is a type of barge or dhow, often used to transport sand or other goods through the palm-lined canals. – Thrikkunnapuzha – 1990

This boat is a traditional vessel often referred to as a ‘Kettu Vallam’. Historically, these boats served as the ‘freight carriers’ of the backwaters, transporting goods such as rice, coconuts and sand before the advent of proper roads and railways. A characteristic feature is the sail, which is often made from simple materials such as grain sacks. The banks are densely covered with coconut palms, which is typical of this region near Thrikkunnapuzha, a picturesque coastal town in the Alappuzha district of Kerala. – 1990

The traditional boats of Kerala’s backwaters were historically used as ‘waterway lorries’ to transport goods such as rice, spices and sand. This is a Kettu Vallam from the Thrikkunnapuzha region. The boats are often characterised by hand-woven roofs made of coconut fibre and bamboo, as well as distinctive sails. – 1990

Locals in a traditional wooden boat (pirogue or canoe), used for transport and daily life on the waterways. The backwaters of Kerala in south-west India form an extensive network of lagoons, lakes, canals and rivers. The banks are lined with dense groves of palm trees, rice fields and small villages, making the backwaters a popular destination for nature lovers and those seeking relaxation. – Thrikkunnapuzha – 1990

Traditional huts with roofs made of palm fronds, situated directly alongside the waterways in the backwaters of Alleppey in Kerala. This region is famous for its extensive network of canals, rivers and lakes, lined with lush tropical vegetation and coconut palms. – 1990

These are the ingredients for a typical fish curry dish from the Malabar Coast in the south-western Indian state of Kerala. In the local dialect, Malayalam, these mackerel-like fish are called ayila. At the top left you can see coconut flakes, next to them small onions, salt, dried yellow tamarind peel, Indian pepper (ground pepper pods) and, in the middle, a brownish soy paste. Below these, from left to right, are fresh green chillies, tomatoes, a sprig of a laurel-like shrub – simply known as curry leaves in South India – and garlic. – 1990

The serious yet curious expressions on the two girls’ faces lend the photograph a profound emotional depth. The scene was captured in Thrikkunnapuzha and is typical of Kerala’s rural communities. – 1990

Portrait of a female officer of the Indian Home Guard (a voluntary auxiliary force to the police) in uniform. She is wearing a khaki-coloured uniform shirt, as is customary in various police forces in India. A silver badge is attached to her beret, featuring the Indian national emblem (Ashoka’s lion capital) at the top, above a wreath and a central, stylised bird (often interpreted as a dove of peace) with outstretched wings. She wears a bindi on her forehead and traditional Indian earrings (jhumkas). – Mahé – 1990

The posters on the wall advertise South Indian films. One of the most prominent posters (centre-right) shows scenes from the cult film *Michael Madana Kama Rajan* (1990) starring Kamal Haasan. Other posters feature films in Malayalam or Tamil. The photograph was taken in 1990. The scene also features a traditional ox-drawn cart used for transporting goods. In the foreground, a man is pulling a small handcart laden with wicker baskets, suggesting a busy street near the market in Cannanore (now Kannur).

Cannanore (now officially known as Kannur) in northern Kerala, India, is famous for this type of landscape. Here, there is a very special, traditional form of rice cultivation known as Kaipad. This involves integrated organic farming in the brackish coastal marshes. Typically, during the monsoon season, rice is grown on small mounds of earth, whilst during the drier months, aquaculture (fish and prawn farming) is often practised in the same fields. The dense groves of coconut palms lining the water-filled paddies are the hallmark of this region and make it a popular subject for landscape photography in Kerala. – 1990

Rice cultivation near Anjengo (also known as Anjuthengu), a historic coastal village in the Thiruvananthapuram district of the Indian state of Kerala. The image illustrates the traditional method of rice planting, which has been practised for centuries. Workers plant seedlings in flooded fields, a technique that is often carried out collectively. – 1990

The rice fields are flooded, which is the traditional method of rice cultivation. The water not only aids growth but also naturally suppresses weeds. A woman in a colourful sari walks along a narrow embankment that separates the individual fields. These embankments serve both as footpaths and to regulate the water level. – Kannur area – 1990

The rice fields are flooded, which is the traditional method of rice cultivation. The water not only aids growth but also naturally suppresses weeds. A woman in a colourful sari walks along a narrow embankment that separates the individual fields. These embankments serve both as footpaths and to regulate the water level. In the background, a farmer ploughs a flooded field with a plough drawn by water buffaloes. – Kannur area – 1990

A farmer ploughs a flooded field using a plough drawn by water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). The use of wooden ploughs and teams of oxen or water buffaloes is a centuries-old method that is still practised today in many rural areas. – Kannur district – 1990

This and the next photograph show the pepper berries hanging in long spikes or clusters. When harvested unripe, they are processed into green peppercorns, which are sold in tins or in brine. On the right, the berries have changed colour from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stalk encircles the strongly branched shoot. - Cardamom Hills in the Thekkadi area - 1990

This photograph and the previous one show the pepper berries hanging in long spikes or clusters. When harvested unripe, they are processed into green peppercorns, which are sold in tins or in brine. On the right, the berries have changed colour from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stalk encircles the strongly branched shoot. - Cardamom Hills in the Thekkadi area - 1990

Pepper harvesting in the Cardamom Hills near Thekkadi, a small town in the south-western Indian state of Kerala. The slopes of these hills are sparsely covered with deciduous trees, their trunks enveloped by the dense foliage of the pepper bushes. Pepper is a climbing plant which – much like wild vines or ivy – grows upwards on trees and rock faces using its tough, supple tendrils and adhesive aerial roots. To harvest the long clusters of pepper berries, the picker uses a sturdy bamboo pole, from which he has trimmed the side shoots to the width of a step, as a ladder. - 1990

The harvested pepper berries are spread out on straw mats to dry, during which time they turn grey to blackish, thus producing black pepper. White pepper is the hulled variety. Like nutmeg and cloves, pepper is mainly grown by smallholders. They deliver their harvest to buyers, who then sell it on to wholesalers. – Cardamom Hills, in the Thekkadi region – 1990

A pepper buyer in Kozhikode, formerly Calicut, on the Malabar Coast in Kerala. He collects the harvest from smallholders; here, it gradually fills the thick sacks of pepper. In the days of the Spice Route, when pepper was weighed against gold in Europe, ‘pepper sack’ became a derogatory term for wealthy spice merchants. - 1990

Santo Angelo Fort towers over the south-western Indian town of Cannanore on the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala. Unlike other fortifications, which are often left to fall into ruin, this fort, believed to date from the early 16th century, has suffered little damage. This magnificent structure still faces the sea, ready to repel any attackers. Unfortunately, its exact origin cannot be determined from the crown above the abutment. Cannanore was known for its sheltered harbour, which was already visited by Arab and Persian sailors in ancient times. – 1990

A road near Karwar, a coastal town in the Indian state of Karnataka. The region is known for its picturesque setting at the mouth of the River Kali, but also for its agricultural traditions. Drying red chillies by the roadside is a common practice in this area to preserve the harvest. The dark asphalt of the roads absorbs the sun’s heat and acts as a natural drying tray, which speeds up the process. – 1990

Two Indian women are using the heat and sunshine to dry chillies in front of their house. The photograph was taken near the town of Margao on the south-west coast of India, in what was formerly Goa. This region was colonised in 1510 by the Portuguese navigator Alfonso de Albuquerque, at a time when Portugal was building its global empire. Goa subsequently became the capital of Portugal’s Asian colonies. Saint Francis Xavier converted the local population in 1542, during a journey that took him as far as Japan. In 1962, Goa was occupied and annexed by India, after the government had long demanded its return from Portugal in vain. Today, Goa, together with Daman and Diu, forms the territory of Panjim, covering approximately 4,000 square kilometres. Alongside iron and manganese ore mining, the region’s vibrant economic activity includes the textile industry, fishing and spice cultivation. Although pepper was absent here during the era of the Spice Route – as it originates from the New World – it is now cultivated here, as in most tropical countries. - 1990

This striking structure, approximately 46 metres high, is the remaining bell tower of St Augustine’s Church in Old Goa (Velha Goa), India. Construction was begun in 1597 by Augustinian monks and completed in 1602. Following the expulsion of the religious orders from Goa in 1835, the complex was abandoned. The main building collapsed in 1842, whilst the tower shown here is one of the few parts to have survived. The ruins are situated on Monte Santo (Holy Hill) in Old Goa, about 10 km from Panjim. The site forms part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site ‘Churches and Monasteries of Goa’. – 1990

The picture shows St Augustine’s Tower in Old Goa, India. It is the most striking remnant of the once magnificent church and monastery of St Augustine. The church was completed between 1572 and 1602 by Augustinian monks. It was once one of the largest churches in Goa and indeed in the whole of Asia. Following the Portuguese government’s ban on religious orders in 1835, the monastery was abandoned and fell into disrepair. The façade and half of the tower collapsed in 1931, followed by further sections in 1938. Of the original four towers, only this single bell tower, approximately 46 metres high, remains today. The ruins form part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site ‘Churches and Monasteries of Goa’. On the right-hand side of the picture, decorated tiles (azulejos) can be seen on the remaining sections of the walls. These ornamental tiles are typical of Portuguese architecture of that period and bear witness to the former splendour of the interior. – 1990

The photograph shows historic tiles (glazed ceramic tiles) of the kind typically found in the ruins of St Augustine’s Church in Old Goa, India. These tiles feature characteristic motifs in shades of blue, yellow and ochre, bearing witness to the Portuguese influence in this region during the 17th century. The tiles are located on the remains of St Augustine’s Church, which was built around 1602. The photograph shows the tiles in a weathered state on a dark, moss-covered wall, which is typical of the ruins in the humid environment of Goa. – 1990

The Sé Cathedral of Santa Catarina, known as the Sé Cathedral, in Old Goa (Goa Velha), India. The cathedral was built between 1562 and around 1651 in the Tuscan style and is laid out in the shape of a Latin cross with three naves. It originally had two towers, but the northern bell tower collapsed in 1776 and was never rebuilt, giving the façade its current asymmetrical appearance. Its tower houses the famous ‘Golden Bell’, considered one of the largest bells in the world. Today, the cathedral forms part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site ‘Churches and Monasteries of Goa’. - The tree in front of the church is a columnar araucaria. A fascinating characteristic of this species is that, outside its native habitat (New Caledonia), it almost always exhibits a distinctive tilt, which is genetically determined to lean towards the equator. – 1990

A flower seller outside the Sri Manguesh Temple (also known as Shree Mangeshi Temple), located in the village of Mangeshi in Goa, about 21 km from Panaji. It is one of the most significant and most visited Hindu temples in the region. Pilgrims often buy coconuts, flowers or garlands before entering the temple. In Hindu tradition, the coconut is regarded as an ‘auspicious fruit’. Smashing the hard shell symbolises shedding the ego in order to reach the pure core within. The flowers and garlands are offered to the deity (an incarnation of Lord Shiva). The gentle laying of the flowers at the feet of the deity symbolises, ritually, the letting go of worldly desires. – 1990

The Basílica do Bom Jesus (Basilica of the Good Jesus) in Velha Goa (Old Goa). It is India’s first Basilica minor and is regarded as one of the most significant examples of Portuguese Baroque architecture in India. The foundation stone was laid in 1594, and the building was completed in 1605. The façade is made of granite and combines Corinthian, Doric and Ionic elements. Unlike many other churches in Goa, the exterior walls are not plastered, giving it its characteristic appearance of dark laterite stone. The church is world-famous as the resting place of Saint Francis Xavier. His remains lie in an ornate tomb inside. In 1986, the basilica was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List. – 1990

A fishmonger at a market in the Indian town of Vasco da Gama (often simply called ‘Vasco’) in the state of Goa, sheltering from the sun under a striking red parasol. – 1990

A wonderful, lively portrait! The smile of the woman in traditional Goan dress is very warm and engaging. It is typical of Maximilien Bruggmann that he understands how to get close to his subject and capture people’s dignity and zest for life without staging the scene. – Vasco da Gama – Goa – 1990

Traditional method of drying fish at Colva Beach, Goa. The fish (often mackerel or sardines) are laid out in neat rows on nets or coconut fibre mats in the blazing sun to preserve them through evaporation. This can take several days. Once the fish are completely dried, they are packed and sold at local markets. Dried fish is an important staple food, as it can be stored for long periods without refrigeration. – 1990

On Colva Beach, south of Panaji (or Panjirn), the capital of the territory of the same name, which also includes the former Portuguese colony of Goa. The dwarf mackerel laid out here to dry in the sun are turned over by women several times a day. Dried fish is a valuable food reserve for the people living in coastal areas. – 1990

A street vendor in Panaji displaying a large quantity of apples on a traditional two-wheeled cart. Such mobile fruit carts are a common sight in Indian markets and on the streets. – Goa – 1990

A street scene in Panaji (formerly Panjim), the capital of Goa, showing several people, including women in traditional saris, walking past a building covered in advertising posters. – 1990

A homeless girl in Maharashtra, Mumbai (formerly Bombay). Mumbai is known for having one of the world’s largest populations of street children. They often sleep directly on the pavement, in railway stations or under motorway bridges. Many earn a living by begging, collecting rubbish or selling small goods at transport hubs. – 1990

The Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market, far better known by its original name, Crawford Market, is one of the most historic and lively markets in Mumbai, India. The young woman, dressed in traditional clothing and wearing a small bindi on her forehead, is carrying a bundle of firewood. – 1990

At Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market, better known as Crawford Market, a woman sells sugar apples (Annona squamosa), also known as cinnamon apples or sitaphal. – Mumbai – 1990

A scene at Crawford Market (now Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Mandai) in Mumbai. The men, known as hamals (porters), balance goods in large woven baskets on their heads. – 1990

A typical four-wheeled handcart with large, spoked metal wheels, of the sort often found at street markets in India. The vendor is wearing a traditional orange sari with a blue and white striped scarf loosely draped over her head and shoulders. She is selling apples from the cart. - Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

This market stall offers a fresh selection of fruit and vegetables typical of Indian cuisine. The large baskets in the foreground and top right are bursting with bright green chillies, which provide the necessary heat. The vendor is holding a large bunch of fresh coriander in his hands – an essential herb for almost every curry. Fresh ginger, tomatoes and aubergines are also on display. On the right-hand side, small green mangoes are stacked into a neat pyramid. These are often used for pickles (achar) or salads. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

A scene at the bustling Crawford Market (also known as Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market) in Mumbai, India. A market trader sits amidst a colourful array of fresh vegetables, artfully displayed in baskets and on cloths. – 1990

Portrait of a man wearing a turban and a distinctive moustache. The turban is made up of long strips of fabric wrapped around the head using a specific method. In India, turbans often serve as a distinguishing feature for regions or communities. The red dot on the forehead is a tika (or tilak), a religious and cultural symbol in Hinduism. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

Portrait of an elderly man wearing a distinctive turban and a grey beard. He is dressed in traditional clothing and looks directly into the camera, creating an intense and characterful expression. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

The photograph shows an Indian market vendor at a vegetable stall offering a wide selection of fresh produce: fresh ginger, hot green chillies, green leafy vegetables and herbs, often including mint, coriander or watercress. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

A spice trader in Mumbai, in the state of Maharashtra. The spice market is the largest market in this port city on the Indian coast. During the British colonial era it was known as Crawford Market; today it is called Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market. As well as spices, poultry, fruit, vegetables and much more are on offer here. Apart from ginger (next to his right knee) and fresh green chillies, this trader also sells herbs, lettuce and onions. – 1990

A view of the city of Udaipur, taken from a window of the City Palace. The City Palace was built over a period of almost 400 years and is situated on the banks of Lake Pichola. It is considered one of the largest palace complexes in Rajasthan and now houses museums showcasing the history and culture of the Maharana dynasty. – 1990

The sun symbol of the Mewar dynasty is displayed on the exterior of the City Palace in Udaipur, Rajasthan. This striking emblem depicts the sun god Surya and refers to the lineage of the rulers of Udaipur, who regard themselves as members of the Suryavamsha (Sun Dynasty). – 1990

A woman on the steps of a temple in Udaipur, often referred to as the ‘Venice of the East’ or the ‘White City’ and considered one of India’s most romantic cities. It is situated in the state of Rajasthan, nestled in the Aravalli Hills and surrounded by seven sparkling lakes. – 1990

A woman steps through the ornate gateway into the City Palace in Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. Above the entrance hangs the distinctive golden coat of arms of the Mewar dynasty. The emblem is deeply rooted in Rajput history and symbolises the alliance and strength of the empire: on the left is depicted a warrior of the Bhil tribes (Rana Punja Bhil), on the right a Rajput warrior (Maharana Pratap). This symbolises the alliance between the tribal peoples and the ruling family. Above the shield stands the Sun with a Face, the symbol of the House of Mewar, which traces its lineage back to the Sun Dynasty (Suryavansha). At the bottom is the motto: ‘Jo dradh rakhe dharame, tahi rakhe kartar’ (He who holds fast to his faith/duty will be protected by the Creator). – 1990

The picture shows the Mor Chowk (Peacock Courtyard), one of the most magnificent courtyards in the City Palace in Udaipur. The courtyard is famous for its three ornate peacock figures set into the walls. These mosaics are made up of around 5,000 glass and mirror elements in shades of green, blue and gold. The three central peacocks represent the three seasons in India: summer, winter and the monsoon season. Work on the courtyard began in the 17th century under Maharana Karan Singh and was later completed with the present-day glass mosaics under Maharana Sajjan Singh in the 19th century. Historically, this venue was used for private dinners, celebrations and royal audiences. In addition to the peacock mosaics, the courtyard captivates with its detailed glass inlays (jharokhas) and the characteristic black-and-white chequered marble floor. – 1990

This particular mosaic depicts a peacock with its tail fully spread, flanked by two smaller peacocks, set within a decorative niche in the Mor Chowk (Peacock Courtyard) of the City Palace in Udaipur, Rajasthan. The peacock is the national bird of India, and there are a total of five such mosaics in the City Palace, representing the different seasons (summer, winter and monsoon). - 1990

The City Palace in Udaipur is situated on the eastern shore of Lake Pichola. The palace complex is regarded as the city’s landmark and is the largest palace in Rajasthan. The complex is renowned for its magnificent courtyards, hall of mirrors, royal galleries and murals. – 1990

A traditional Indian ox cart in Udaipur, pulled by two zebu cattle (humpback cattle), which are well adapted to the warm climate. A striking feature is the painted horns (here in blue and yellow), which is a common tradition in many parts of India to adorn the animals or highlight their significance to the owner. The wooden cart has large, traditional spoked wheels. For a long time, such vehicles formed the backbone of rural logistics before being replaced in many areas by motorised vehicles such as tractors or auto-rickshaws. – 1990

At Indian markets such as this one in Udaipur, various types of green leafy vegetables and herbs are often sold in handy bunches directly on the street or at weekly markets. The produce is typically displayed in traditional, flat wicker baskets, which allow for good ventilation of the delicate greens. - 1990

In Udaipur, carrying loads on one’s head is deeply rooted in the culture: women in Rajasthan are known for carrying heavy loads such as water jugs (matkas), firewood or baskets of goods on their heads. This is stabilised by a fabric ring on the head, which is a very efficient carrying technique. – 1990

In Udaipur, elephants are a familiar sight in the streets, often used for ceremonial purposes or tourism, and are also firmly embedded in the cityscape in the form of impressive stone sculptures. In the background, the approach to Jagdish Temple, an important Hindu temple guarded by two imposing stone elephants. The façade itself is adorned with detailed carvings of elephants, horsemen and dancers. – 1990

This photograph shows the upper section of the steep staircase leading to the main entrance of the renowned Jagdish Temple in Udaipur. The temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu, the Preserver of the Universe, who is worshipped here as Lord Jagannath. The temple is renowned for its intricate stone carvings and sculptures, which depict scenes from Hindu mythology as well as dancers and musicians. In the background of the picture, these detailed friezes above the entrance area are clearly visible. - 1990

An Indian woman in a pink sari sits by the roadside, weaving flowers into garlands. This scene is typical of the bustling markets in the Udaipur region of Rajasthan. Such garlands are often used as offerings to deities in temples or presented during religious rituals such as the morning aarti. The art of weaving flower garlands is a centuries-old craft. - 1990

A subji-walli (vegetable seller) in India. She is sitting in a doorway in Udaipur behind baskets containing various vegetables such as spring onions, aubergines, cauliflower and green courgettes. The woman wears a traditional yellow odhni (headscarf) over a pink blouse. This type of street trading is widespread in India and provides a livelihood for many families. – 1990

A street vendor in Udaipur selling local fruit, vegetables and spices to passers-by. Udaipur is situated in a region steeped in history. In the moonlight, the palaces on the lakeshore evoke memories of tales from “One Thousand and One Nights”. – 1990

Two Indian women, deep in conversation, sitting in front of a blue-painted door in Udaipur, Rajasthan. The women are wearing colourful outfits typical of the region. One woman is wearing a peach-coloured sari with a floral pattern, whilst the other is dressed in a light blue, embroidered gown with a white, sheer headscarf (odhni or dupatta). – 1990

Card games played in public spaces are an integral part of everyday social life in Udaipur, the ‘City of Lakes’. Older men in particular often meet in the afternoon to play cards together. Popular spots include shady corners on pavements, temple steps or small forecourts in the old town. These gatherings are often lively and convivial. Many of the men here also wear traditional Rajasthani turbans and simple white clothing, which makes the scene very characteristic of the region. - 1990

The atmosphere in the picture, with the hanging goods and traditional clothing, is typical of Udaipur’s oldest markets. The winding streets of the old town, particularly around Jagdish Temple and the City Palace, still retain this timeless charm to this day. – 1990

Two women shopping at a market stall in Udaipur. The scene is characterised by the vibrant, traditional clothing and the rustic setting of a small street stall. – 1990

A woman standing in a doorway in Udaipur. She is wearing traditional Indian clothing, likely a sari or a lehenga choli, often complemented by a dupatta (veil) covering her head. – 1990

Following the first monsoon rains, a farmer in the Udaipur area leads a team of two white zebus (humpback cattle) to prepare the ground for sowing. A woman in a yellow sari carries a shallow bowl on her head, containing the seeds for the upcoming sowing. - 1990

The photograph depicts traditional farming in India, showing a farming couple ploughing a field with the help of oxen or zebus. This scene is typical of rural areas where hand-operated wooden ploughs are still used to prepare the soil for sowing. – Udaipur – 1990

The photograph captures traditional rural life in the Aravalli Hills, in the region between Udaipur and Narlai. In this area, agriculture is still largely characterised by traditional methods. Ploughing with oxen is a common method of tilling the soil in this hilly and often arid landscape. The area around Udaipur is known for the cultivation of cereals such as maize and wheat, as well as pulses. – 1990

In the area around Udaipur in Rajasthan, there are still a few places where you can see the traditional Persian waterwheel (often known locally as a ‘rahat’ or ‘araghatta’) in action. Unlike electric pumps, waterwheels draw water more slowly, which allows for a more sustainable use of the often scarce groundwater reserves. – 1990

This irrigation system in the Aravalli Hills near Udaipur is not a Rahat, but a Charas or Chades, which operates on a rope-pulley system. Oxen pull a rope up a ramp to hoist a large leather bag (the Charas) from a deep well. As soon as the bag reaches the top, it empties into the canal. There is no rotating wheel with many buckets here. – 1990

Around 80 to 100 kilometres north of Udaipur lies the impressive Kumbhalgarh Fort (also known as Kumbhalmer), a massive 15th-century fortress. The fort is situated in the Aravalli Hills at an altitude of over 1,000 metres. The fort is famous for its massive walls, which stretch for around 36 kilometres. They are considered the second-longest continuous wall in the world after the Great Wall of China. Within the walls are over 360 temples, including significant Jain and Hindu temples. The fort was built by Rana Kumbha, the ruler of Mewar. Due to its strategic location and thick walls, it was considered virtually impregnable. – The site has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2013. – 1990

The impressive Kumbhalgarh Fort (or Kumbhalmer Fort) is particularly famous for its massive rampart, often referred to as the ‘Great Wall of India’. In many places, the wall is so wide that up to eight horses can ride side by side on it. - 1990

Kumbhalgarh Fort is situated north of Udaipur on a 1,100-metre-high rocky outcrop near Nathdwara and is one of Rajasthan’s most significant fortifications. The fort walls, with their imposing bastion and semi-circular, strangely bulbous towers, were built in 1548. It was conquered only by the troops of the Indian Great Mughal Akbar, and even then only because he had the wells poisoned. Within the 36-kilometre-long fortress walls of this immense complex lie several temples, palaces and more modest dwellings. - 1990

Kumbhalgarh Fort was built in the 15th century (between 1445 and 1458 AD) by Rana Kumbha. It is also the birthplace of the legendary warrior Maharana Pratap. The fort was designed so that, despite its hilltop location, it is barely visible from a distance, making it an almost impregnable defensive structure. The walls are up to 15 feet (approx. 4.5 metres) thick in places. Within the massive walls are over 360 temples as well as palaces such as the striking Badal Mahal (‘Palace of the Clouds’) at the top of the fort. – Aravalli Hills in the Rajsamand district, about 84 km from Udaipur. – 1990

A traditional scene from rural India: a heavily laden ox cart is pulled by two zebu cattle. This mode of transport is a centuries-old tradition in India, which remains part of everyday life even today, particularly away from the main tourist routes. The cart is piled high with branches, which are presumably intended for use as firewood or building materials. The people on the cart are wearing the typical clothing of the rural population in regions such as Rajasthan. – Falna – 1990

The Persian wheel (also known as a saqiyah or araghatta) is an ancient method of drawing water. This scene is typical of the rural areas of Rajasthan. Similar installations are often found near Udaipur, Jodhpur or Kumbhalgarh Fort. – Ranakpur – 1990

The picture shows an zebu-driven water wheel, a traditional irrigation system known as a Rahat or Persian wheel. Oxen or bulls walk in a circle to turn a gear mechanism, which in turn drives a vertical wheel fitted with buckets (often made of clay or metal) attached by chains. The water is drawn from deep wells or rivers and channelled into irrigation canals to supply fields in rural areas. – Ranakpur – 1990

The picture shows an ox-driven water wheel, a traditional irrigation system known as a Rahat or Persian wheel. Oxen or bulls walk in a circle to turn a gear mechanism, which in turn drives a vertical wheel fitted with buckets (often made of clay or metal) attached by chains. The water is drawn from deep wells or rivers and channelled into irrigation canals to supply fields in rural areas. – Ranakpur – 1990

A man sits on the steps of the famous Adinath Temple in Ranakpur. This temple is renowned worldwide for its 1,444 individually carved marble pillars, none of which are alike. The bright red turban is a distinctive feature of the Rabari herdsmen. It symbolises honour and pride and also serves as practical protection against the Rajasthani sun. The flowers in the basket (often roses and marigolds) are sold as offerings for the religious rituals in the temple. Visitors purchase these to place them before the statue of Lord Adinath, the first Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of the Jains. – 1990

An extraordinary marble carving from the Ranakpur Jain Temple (also known as the Chaumukha Temple) in Rajasthan, India. It depicts Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of the Jain religion. A characteristic feature of Parshvanatha is the canopy of snake heads above his head. This particular carving is often referred to as Nagdaman. The sculpture is famous for its complexity: it depicts Parshvanatha surrounded by a dense network of 1,008 intertwined snakes. The snakes’ tails are so artfully interwoven that it is almost impossible to find their beginning or end. The temple was built in the 15th century and is considered one of the most significant masterpieces of Jain architecture. It is best known for its 1,444 individually carved marble pillars, none of which are alike. – 1990

Probably the best-known complex in Ranakpur is the 15th-century Adinath Temple, famous for its sophisticated architecture and rich sculptural decoration. It is the largest sacred building of Jainism, a religion founded by a contemporary of the Buddha which offers the prospect of liberation from the cycle of rebirth through good deeds. The temple consists of dozens of ‘chapels’ and hundreds of chiselled columns, each with its own unique ornamentation. As Jains are forbidden to kill living creatures, they are vegetarians. The monk in the picture is grinding yellow ochre; every visitor is entitled to an auspicious dot of this colour on their forehead. – 1990

The striking red headdress is a type of turban known locally as a pagri or safa. In Rajasthan, the turban is far more than just an item of clothing; it is a symbol of honour, pride and social status. The way a turban is wrapped, as well as its colour and pattern, often reveal the wearer’s origin, caste or profession. The magnificent white moustache is a sign of wisdom, masculinity and life experience in Marwari culture. – 1990

A flower seller outside a temple in Ranakpur, making garlands of orange marigolds (Tagetes). These flowers are of great cultural significance in India and are frequently used for religious offerings, temple visits and festivals such as Diwali. – 1990

The Rabari are a semi-nomadic pastoral people who live mainly in the western Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. They are known for their rich cultural identity, which is particularly reflected in their distinctive clothing and jewellery. The women traditionally wear heavy bangles, which can often extend from the wrist to the upper arm, as well as eye-catching silver jewellery around the neck and ears. – Ranakpur – 1990

Older Rabari women often have traditional tattoos (trahi) on their arms, legs or face, which have both aesthetic and cultural significance. The striking white upper-arm bangles are a distinctive identifying feature of married Rabari women in this region. A long veil or scarf covers the head and shoulders. These are often in bright colours such as red or black and may be decorated with small mirrors (shisha embroidery). – Ranakpur – 1990

The woman is wearing a type of odhani (a long veil) draped over her head. The gleaming golden vessel on her head is a typical Indian lota, used for carrying water. Balancing such loads is a skill widely practised in rural India. – Ranakpur – 1990

Collecting water is a vital task that often dictates the daily routine of women in the region around Desuri, which lies at the foot of the Aravalli mountain range, marking the transition between the more fertile Mewar region and the arid Thar Desert. The women wear colourful saris, often paired with bangles and face veils. Balancing heavy clay or metal jugs on their heads is a traditional method of transporting water over long distances. – Desuri – 1990

A large puddle in the foreground lends the scene an artistic depth. A woman in a traditional red sari balances a box on her head. This method of transporting water containers or building materials is common in this region. – Rajasthan, Desuri – 1990

The scene captures everyday life in the Indian city of Desuri following rainfall, a common occurrence during the monsoon season. The puddle on the street creates a clear reflection of the passers-by and the surrounding architecture. – 1990

This woman from Desuri in Rajasthan sells small fruits known as ber or Indian jujube. They are eaten fresh, dried or processed into products such as pickles and juices. – 1990

A scene from the village of Desuri (Pali district) in Rajasthan, situated in one of India’s driest regions on the edge of the Aravalli Mountains. Groundwater often has to be drawn from depths of over 30 metres, which requires robust pumps such as the India Mark II shown in the picture. This muscle-powered pump was developed in the 1970s to meet the water needs of villages in developing countries and rural areas. – 1990

A child is being carried safely on the back of a donkey. Interestingly, right next to the child are lambs in transport sacks, suggesting that a nomadic family is on a trek or moving on with their livestock. – Desuri, Rajasthan – 1990

An elderly man, often referred to as a baba or sadhu, sits in a relaxed posture on a platform made of logs and ropes. He wears a light brown turban and has a distinctive full white beard. Desuri region – 1990

Construction of the Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur began in 1459. The fort stands majestically atop a 123-metre-high rocky hill overlooking the ‘Blue City’. The fortress walls are up to 36 metres high and 21 metres wide. The fort is considered unconquered, as it has never been taken by force in its long history, despite numerous sieges. Today it houses a renowned museum. - 1990

Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur is one of the largest and best-preserved fortresses in India. Construction began in 1459 under Rao Jodha, the founder of Jodhpur. It is an imposing fortress built of red sandstone, whose massive outer walls rise to a height of 36 metres and blend seamlessly with the natural cliffs.

Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur is renowned for its ornate jharokhas (covered balcony recesses). These sandstone balconies, often featuring delicate jalis (latticework windows), provided cooling, privacy and sweeping views over the ‘Blue City’. The structure is entirely crafted from the red or brown sandstone characteristic of Jodhpur, masterfully carved by hand. – 1990

The famous ‘Blue City’ of Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The densely packed blue houses are mainly located in the old quarters below Mehrangarh Fort. Traditionally, the blue colour indicated that the houses were inhabited by Brahmins, the highest caste in Hindu society. – 1990

A densely built-up neighbourhood in Jodhpur, known worldwide as the ‘Blue City’ due to its distinctive blue-painted houses. Originally, members of the Brahmin caste painted their homes blue to signify their social status and to distinguish their houses from those of other social classes. As the region lies on the edge of the Thar Desert and is exposed to extremely high temperatures, the lime-based blue paint serves to reflect sunlight. This keeps the interior of the buildings noticeably cooler. Copper sulphate was mixed into the traditional lime paint. This chemical compound not only produced the deep blue hue, but also effectively protects the masonry from termite infestation to this day and keeps mosquitoes at bay. – 1990

The famous ‘Blue City’ of Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The densely packed blue houses are mainly located in the old quarters below Mehrangarh Fort. Traditionally, the blue colour indicated that the houses were inhabited by Brahmins, the highest caste in Hindu society. – 1990

A densely built-up neighbourhood in Jodhpur, known worldwide as the ‘Blue City’ due to its distinctive blue-painted houses. Originally, members of the Brahmin caste painted their homes blue to signify their social status and to distinguish their houses from those of other social classes. As the region lies on the edge of the Thar Desert and is exposed to extremely high temperatures, the lime-based blue paint serves to reflect sunlight. This keeps the interior of the buildings noticeably cooler. Copper sulphate was mixed into the traditional lime paint. This chemical compound not only produced the deep blue hue, but also effectively protects the masonry from termite infestation to this day and keeps mosquitoes at bay. – 1990

The famous ‘Blue City’ of Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The densely packed blue houses are mainly located in the old quarters below Mehrangarh Fort. Traditionally, the blue colour indicated that the houses were inhabited by Brahmins, the highest caste in Hindu society. As the region lies on the edge of the Thar Desert and is subject to extremely high temperatures, the lime-based blue paint serves to reflect sunlight. This keeps the interiors of the buildings noticeably cooler. The blue colour also serves to keep the houses cooler in the hot climate and to repel mosquitoes. – 1990

The historic Chhatri of Kirat Singh Soda is located within the grounds of the famous Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur. It is a memorial (cenotaph) to the brave soldier Kirat Singh Soda, who fell here whilst defending the fort. The pavilion stands on a raised platform, features intricately designed columns and is crowned by a large stone dome with richly decorated panels. The entire structure is built from weather-resistant red sandstone, typical of the region. – 1990

A view from the ramparts of the majestic Mehrangarh Fort over the historic old town of Jodhpur, also known as the ‘Blue City’. The densely packed clusters of houses, painted in indigo blue, dominate the entire cityscape. Traditionally, the blue wall paint signalled membership of the Brahmin (priestly) caste, but today it also helps to keep the buildings cool in the desert heat. In the foreground, one can see one of the typical, ornately decorated sandstone pavilions (chhatris) and the massive fortification walls of the fort. – 1990

This individual is most likely a Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). These vultures are very common winter visitors in north-western India, particularly around Jodhpur (such as at the well-known carcass site in Keru). – 1990

An elderly man in traditional dress from Jodhpur. His attire consists of a long white tunic (kurta) and loose, wrapped trousers (dhoti). On his head he wears a carefully wrapped, light-coloured turban (safa). In his hands he holds ritual or everyday objects, including an ornate metal vessel and lengths of fabric. – 1990

A traditional folk musician in typical regional costume, playing the historic stringed instrument known as the Ravanahattha. This is an ancient long-necked lute and one of the oldest known precursors of the modern violin. The body usually consists of a halved coconut covered with animal skin, and a long neck made of bamboo. The instrument has main and resonance strings, as well as a bow that is often decorated with small bells. – Jodhpur – 1990

Portrait of an elderly man from Jodhpur. He is wearing a traditional, colourful turban (pagri or safa). In the Rajasthan region, the way the turban is wrapped, its size and its pattern traditionally indicate the wearer’s caste, occupation and specific region of origin. In addition to its symbolic significance, the voluminous cotton fabric provides effective protection from the intense sunlight in desert regions. The colourfully patterned fabric of the turban is often designed in the regionally typical Leheriya (wave pattern) or Bandhani (tie-dye) style. – 1990

A woman in traditional Indian dress walking along an old stone wall. She is wearing a pink ghoonghat (headscarf/veil) and a patterned, reddish-pink gown. On her wrist she wears traditional bangles, which are typical of married women in this region. – Jodhpur – 1990

A woman in a blue sari is sitting on a four-wheeled wooden cart, which serves as her mobile stall for selling bananas. She is serving a woman in a pink, patterned sari. In the background, two sacred cows (zebus) are wandering freely along the street. – Jodhpur – 1990

An elderly woman in traditional dress is selling various goods. A brightly patterned cloth (sari or dupatta) covers her head and she has tattoos on her right forearm. In her hands she holds a traditional mechanical beam balance with two pans, used to weigh goods for customers. Behind the woman, several bicycles are leaning against a metal railing. – Jodhpur – 1990

Street scene in Jodhpur – A family of three riding together on a bicycle. – 1990

At the market in Jodhpur, local farmers sell their own produce, in this case red chillies and aubergines. – 1990

A young trader sits behind a large pile of fresh green chillies at a market in Jodhpur. These are elongated, light-green chillies with a mild to medium heat, which are frequently used in Indian cuisine for stews or as a side dish (e.g. Mirchi Bajji or Jwala chillies). – 1990

A traditional street barber at work outdoors. He is cutting a customer’s hair using a hand-operated clipper. This style of haircutting is typical of the informal sector in countries such as India (often referred to as a ‘roadside barber’). – Jodhpur – 1990

A man in traditional dress from the Rajasthan region. The large, intricately wrapped turban protects him from the extreme desert heat. The colour and style of the wrap often indicate social status, caste or the exact region of origin. The distinctive, often elaborately curled moustache, paired with a full beard, is a traditional symbol of masculinity, pride and honour in Rajasthan. The necklace with a gold amulet (often an amulet pendant known as a Madaliya) traditionally serves as a symbol of protection or indicates religious devotion. – Jodhpur – 1990

The portrait depicts an elderly man from Jodhpur wearing a traditional, intricately wrapped turban (safa or pagri) and a distinctive, split beard. In the desert region of Rajasthan, the turban is a proud symbol of honour, social status and membership of a particular caste or community. In addition to its cultural significance, the large, loosely wrapped strip of cotton fabric serves as practical protection against the extreme heat and sandstorms of the Thar Desert. Plain, light-coloured or earth-toned turbans such as this one are frequently worn in everyday life by older men, farmers or shepherds in rural areas. – 1990

A young girl in Jodhpur balances a woven basket on her head. The image documents the historically and socially deeply rooted practice of manual scavenging in South Asia. This involves carrying faeces or waste directly on the head. In practice, this work often falls to women and children from marginalised communities (such as the Dalits), who occupy the lowest rung of the traditional caste system. – 1990

The city of Jodhpur has a long tradition of making these hand-woven brooms (Jharoo). There is even the well-known Arna Jharna open-air museum, which is dedicated to the culture, various designs and ethnological background of Indian brooms. In Rajasthan, these brooms are often hand-bound from dried palm leaves of the wild date palm (Khajur) or special, robust desert grasses. – 1990

A young woman from Jodhpur wearing traditional clothing and jewellery. A delicate, pink veil is loosely draped over her head. She has a bindi on her forehead, a traditional red dot adorned with a small gemstone. She wears a traditional necklace (often referred to as a thushi or timaniya) with small, gold-coloured pendants, as well as a simpler chain underneath. She wears numerous bangles on her forearms. – Sardar Market (or Girdikot) in Jodhpur – 1990

Balancing heavy sacks or bundles on one’s head is a common way of transporting goods in many rural and urban areas of India. The toddler sitting on the woman’s hip looks unhappy. – Sardar Market (or Girdikot) in Jodhpur – 1990

Two elderly men from Jodhpur, wearing traditional turbans, are taking a smoke break. The men are squatting in a typical Indian resting position beside large jute sacks by the roadside. One man wears a voluminous, pure white turban, as is often seen in the daily life of older village communities in regions such as Jodhpur. The other man wears a colourful red turban with a bandhani pattern (a traditional Indian tie-dye technique). – Sardar Market (or Girdikot) in Jodhpur – 1990

This three-wheeled vehicle is a Tempo Hanseat, an iconic mode of transport that has been a familiar sight on Indian roads for decades. The vehicle was originally developed in the 1940s and 1950s by the German company Vidal & Sohn Tempo-Werke in Hamburg-Harburg. In 1958, the Indian company Firodia Ltd (later known as Bajaj Tempo and now Force Motors) entered into a partnership with Tempo-Werke. Production of the Hanseat continued under licence in India until the year 2000. Although it was designed as a light goods vehicle, owners frequently converted it. Fitted with bench seats and a canopy, it served as a shared taxi for large numbers of passengers in many regions of India – particularly in rural areas. The vehicle featured a distinctive front-wheel drive layout, with the engine positioned directly above the single front wheel. Legendary features included the extremely loud, rattling engine noise, starting the engine via a pull-cord under the bonnet, and the angled rear wheels, which only straightened up under heavy loads. – Jodhpur – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. This type of turban is known locally as a safa or pagri (pagadi). In Rajasthani culture, the turban is far more than just an item of clothing. It symbolises pride, honour and the social status of the wearer. Its shape, colour and the way it is wrapped can provide clues as to the region, caste or occasion. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. The vibrant patterns are often based on traditional dyeing techniques such as bandhani or colourful woven designs. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. The vibrant patterns are often based on traditional dyeing techniques such as bandhani or colourful woven designs. In the hot desert regions of Rajasthan, the long, artfully wrapped strip of fabric effectively protects the head from the intense sunlight. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. This type of turban is known locally as a safa or pagri (pagadi). In Rajasthani culture, the turban is far more than just an item of clothing. It symbolises pride, honour and the social status of the wearer. Its shape, colour and the way it is wrapped can provide clues as to the region, caste or occasion. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. The vibrant patterns are often based on traditional dyeing techniques such as bandhani or colourful woven designs. In the hot desert regions of Rajasthan, the long, artfully wrapped strip of fabric effectively protects the head from the intense sunlight. – 1990

The camel cart is the perfect means of transport in arid regions such as here near Jodhpur, on the edge of the Thar Desert. Such traditional carts still characterise the rural and semi-desert landscape there to this day. The local desert dwellers use these carts every day to transport crops, dry grass or cotton between the surrounding villages. The wide car tyres on the cart prevent the heavy team from getting stuck in the fine, hot desert sand. – 1990

In the narrow streets of Jodhpur, below the monumental Mehrangarh Fort, street vendors like this and intricate murals are a familiar part of the everyday cityscape. The woman is stringing together fresh flowers, which in India are used for religious rituals (puja), temple visits and weddings. In the metal basin lie orange and yellow marigolds (Tagetes), which in Hindu culture symbolise purity and the divine. – 1990

At Jodhpur’s spice market, a colourful array of spices, grains, seeds and powders is displayed in square and round containers. Yellow, red and white powders (such as turmeric, chilli powder or rice flour) form the basis for curries, stews and pasta dishes. Pulses, lentils and mustard seeds are used for nutritious side dishes, soups or for toasting in hot oil. Spice blends lend a deep flavour to meat, fish and vegetable dishes. – 1990

The backdrop to this shop in Jodhpur is dominated by packaged goods from the Indian food industry, though spices and staple foods are still sold in bulk. – 1990

In Hinduism, cows are considered sacred and untouchable, which is why they are often found right in the midst of public life, as here at a bustling street market in Jodhpur. The veneration of the cow is deeply rooted in Indian culture and continues to play a role in political and religious debates to this day. The market stall sells various items of clothing and toys, a typical sight at urban Indian street markets. – 1990

A traditional open-air market stall selling a variety of handmade household goods and tools made of metal or wood. – Jodhpur – 1990

A street vendor selling traditional earthenware pots at the market in Jodhpur. The woman is wearing a traditional, colourful costume, as well as eye-catching arm and foot jewellery. The large, round, light-coloured vessels are traditional Indian water pots, known as matkas. These unglazed pots use evaporative cooling to keep drinking water cool naturally during the hot summer. In the foreground are stacks of smaller, reddish-brown clay bowls and pots, painted with delicate black and white patterns. These are often used for storing food, dairy products such as yoghurt (dahi), or as cooking vessels. Hand-woven mats or fans (probably made from palm leaves) are also on sale. – 1990

A traditional roadside barber (often referred to as a ‘roadside barber’), a common sight in public spaces in countries such as India, as seen here in Jodhpur. All that is needed for this makeshift salon is a simple blue wooden chair, a small table with a mirror, and barber’s tools. – 1990

This photograph was taken in the streets of Jodhpur. It captures the reality of life for an elderly homeless man sitting on the ground and eating his meal. Many people with no fixed abode live and sleep in the narrow market alleys around the historic Clock Tower and Sardar Market. – 1990

A bustling street scene in Jodhpur, where a camel cart – a traditional means of transport – makes its way through the modern traffic. The camel shares the road with motorbikes, buses and pedestrians. – 1990

In India, the scooter is seen as a symbol of the middle-class dream. It provides families with an affordable means of transport, and it is not uncommon for several people – often an entire family – to ride on a single vehicle at the same time. – Jodhpur – 1990

This young man is wearing a traditional Indian headdress known as a Jodhpuri Safa. This turban is usually made of cotton or georgette, and is often decorated with traditional patterns such as bandhani (tie-dye). It is frequently worn at weddings (as a groom’s safa) or other festive occasions. A safa often consists of a long strip of fabric (up to 8.5 metres) that is artfully wrapped around the head. – Jodhpur – 1990

An older man’s standing in Rajasthan is reflected in his traditional Rajasthani attire. The colourful, patterned turban is the most striking feature. It consists of a long strip of fabric and symbolises honour, pride and social status. The white top (angarkha, a tunic) with its small floral pattern is a traditional wrap-style garment. It is often tied at the side with cords. The red cloth around the waist serves as a belt and a decorative element. A long, well-groomed beard is often a sign of maturity and dignity in this region. – Jodhpur – 1990

A nomad from the Thar Desert (Rajasthan). The men who led the long caravans of camels towards the Indus Valley and on through the steppes of what is now Pakistan and Iran towards the Mediterranean, or upstream via the Khyber Pass towards Afghanistan and southern Russia, would likely have looked much the same. – Jodhpur – 1990

Threshing grain is a traditional agricultural technique in which grains are separated from the chaff by dropping them into the wind from a certain height. A woman lifts a basket to clean the grain in the wind, whilst a man sits on the ground and sifts the grain. It is likely to be pearl millet. In Hindi and the local Rajasthani language, this nutrient-rich grain is called bajra. It is extremely drought-resistant and a staple food for the people in this desert region (e.g. in the form of bajre ki roti, a flatbread). – Area around Jodhpur – 1990

A man is sitting on the ground, sifting the grain. It is likely pearl millet. In Hindi and the local language Rajasthani, this nutrient-rich grain is called bajra. It is extremely drought-resistant and a staple food for the people in this desert region (e.g. in the form of bajre ki roti, a flatbread). – Area around Jodhpur – 1990

A woman is performing the ritual known as ‘threshing’, in which grain (such as millet or wheat) is thrown into the air so that the wind separates the lighter chaff from the heavier grains. The woman is wearing many bracelets, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made of materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A man from the Rabari community, an indigenous group of nomads and herders. Rabari men traditionally wear very large, voluminous white turbans. The way the turban is wrapped and the pattern (here a subtle floral print) can often provide clues as to the specific region or social status. Wearing large gold earrings and several beaded necklaces is an integral part of the male traditional costume and serves both as decoration and as an expression of wealth. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A woman from the Rabari community is piling the grain she has winnowed into a heap. She is wearing many bangles, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made from materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A woman is performing the ritual known as ‘threshing’, in which grain (such as millet or wheat) is thrown into the air so that the wind separates the lighter chaff from the heavier grains. The woman is wearing many bracelets, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made of materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

This young woman from the Jodhpur area is wearing the traditional jewellery and clothing characteristic of the nomadic communities in this region. The numerous white rings on her upper and lower arms are known as churas. In many Rajasthani tribes, married women wear this jewellery, which was traditionally made of ivory or bone and is now mostly made of plastic. Her facial jewellery includes a striking nose ring (nath) and an elaborate headband (matha patti). The heavy necklaces with green beads and large metal pendants are typical examples of the region’s tribal-style silver jewellery. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A woman is performing the ritual known as ‘threshing’, in which grain (such as millet or wheat) is thrown into the air so that the wind separates the lighter chaff from the heavier grains. The woman is wearing many bracelets, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made of materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the Thar Desert. This distinctive architectural style is particularly common in the village of Khuri, near Jaisalmer. The houses are made of mud, clay and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme heat of the desert. The striking geometric patterns in white, ochre and reddish-brown are typical of this region and are often applied by the women of the village using natural pigments. – 1990

A traditional house in the village of Khuri, situated in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. The walls are mostly made of a mixture of clay, straw and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme desert climate – keeping the house cool in summer and warm in winter. The striking geometric patterns on the exterior walls are called mandana. These ritual wall paintings are traditionally created by women using lime (white) and red clay (geru) to protect the house and invite good fortune. Typical features include the flat roofs, small windows to keep out the heat, and the distinctive wooden door, often painted turquoise or blue. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the Thar Desert. This distinctive architectural style is particularly common in the village of Khuri, near Jaisalmer. The houses are made of mud, clay and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme heat of the desert. The striking geometric patterns in white, ochre and reddish-brown are typical of this region and are often applied by the women of the village using natural pigments. – 1990

The picture shows traditional Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal painting in India. These murals adorn the mud-brick houses of Khuri in the Thar Desert. Mandanas are painted to protect homes from evil spirits and to welcome the gods (particularly the goddess Lakshmi) into the house. The geometric patterns symbolise the cosmic order and spiritual balance. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the Thar Desert. This distinctive style of architecture is particularly common in the village of Khuri, near Jaisalmer. The houses are built from mud, clay and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme heat of the desert. The roofs are traditionally thatched with straw or brushwood to keep the interiors cool. – 1990

A scene from the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer. The building is a typical mud-brick house with thick walls that keep the interior cool by day and warm by night. The stepped, white-framed doorway is a characteristic architectural feature of this region. A woman wearing a colourful red odhni (veil) balances a water pot on her head, a daily task in water-scarce desert areas. Cattle are an integral part of daily life in Indian desert villages. – 1990

A scene from the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer. The building is a typical mud-brick house with thick walls that keep it cool by day and warm by night. The stepped, white-framed doorway is a characteristic architectural feature of this region. A woman wearing a colourful red odhni (veil) balances a water pot on her head, a daily task in water-scarce desert areas. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert. These houses are characterised by their hand-painted walls, which often feature colourful geometric patterns in shades of red, yellow and white. In the foreground is a girl in a bright pink robe, carrying a bowl on her head – a typical scene from daily life in the rural regions of Rajasthan. – 1990

The houses in the village of Khuri are traditionally built from mud, straw and cow dung, which provides natural insulation against the extreme heat of the desert. The geometric patterns and motifs on the whitewashed walls are typical of the region around Jaisalmer and Barmer. They are often painted using natural pigments such as lime (white) and red ochre (reddish-brown). Many of these houses have conical, thatched roofs known as ‘jhumpas’. – Cattle are an integral part of daily life in Indian desert villages. – 1990

The picture shows traditional Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal painting in India. These murals adorn the mud-brick houses of Khuri in the Thar Desert. Mandanas are painted to protect homes from evil spirits and to welcome the gods (particularly the goddess Lakshmi) into the house. The geometric patterns symbolise the cosmic order and spiritual balance. – 1990

A scene from the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert in Rajasthan. The houses are made of mud, straw and cow dung, which provides natural insulation against the extreme desert heat. The white, stepped patterns on the brown mud walls are typical of the region’s folk art, often known as Mandana art. – 1990

Traditional way of life in Khuri in the Thar Desert. A typical mud-brick house with thick walls for natural cooling. A white façade with a striking green wooden door and decorative geometric patterns on the walls. A clothesline in front of the house with colourful garments. A large clay pot (matka) for cooling water and metal drinking cups on the veranda. On the right of the picture, a traditional Indian bed, a charpai, is leaning against the wall. – 1990

The photograph shows a man from Khuri wearing the region’s traditional headdress. His striking appearance, with his pink turban and thick moustache, is a classic symbol of Rajasthani culture and pride. In Rajasthan, the way a turban is wrapped can often reveal which village or caste a person comes from. A long, proudly worn moustache is regarded in Rajasthan as a sign of masculinity and prestige. – 1990

This boy from Khuri, with a heavy sack on his head, is an example of how even the youngest members of the family have to help their families with their work in rural areas. – 1990

A musician from Khuri plays the kamaicha (also known as the kamayacha), one of the oldest stringed instruments in the world. It is carved from a single piece of mango wood. The soundbox is large and circular, and covered with goatskin. The instrument has 17 strings. Three main strings are made of goatskin, whilst the remaining steel or copper strings serve as resonating strings. It is played with a bow and is known for its deep, resonant sound, often described as the ‘heart and soul’ of Rajasthani folk music. – 1990

A nomad travelling with two dromedaries in the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert. These animals are perfectly adapted to the hot, dry conditions of the desert. They carry wooden saddles or racks used for transporting water, firewood or trade goods. – 1990

A rural scene in Rajasthan, where women are milking a family cow by hand. This traditional method of milk production is widespread in rural India and is often part of daily life in farming villages. Milking is traditionally often carried out by women, whilst the whole family, including the children, helps with household chores and animal care. Cows are considered sacred in Indian culture and are a vital source of livelihood for the rural population. – Khuri – 1990

A scene from the traditional village of Khuri. The photograph captures the essence of rural life in this arid region, where architecture and craftsmanship are closely intertwined with the surrounding environment. In the background, a couple can be seen at a spinning wheel (charkha), a symbol of the traditional production of yarn from wool or cotton, which is still widespread in the villages of the Thar Desert. The open courtyard in front of the house is the centre of daily life, where people work, eat and socialise. – 1990

The Meghwal are known as a community of carpet weavers and produce handmade items from camel, goat and sheep’s wool. The division of labour is traditionally defined, with women combing, cleaning and spinning the wool, whilst the men usually weave it into carpets or traditional fabrics. The hand-spun wool is used to create high-quality carpets, blankets and shawls featuring traditional patterns. The device shown in the picture is a classic Indian charkha. The technique of spinning whilst seated on the floor has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. – Khuri – 1990

A view of the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. The houses are built from mud and cow dung, which provides excellent insulation against the extreme heat of the desert. The white decorations (mandana) around the door and on the walls are typical of Rajasthan. The clay pots (matkas) in front of the house are traditionally used to cool water. – 1990

A man wearing a white turban sits in front of a traditional mud house in Khuri. The house is made of mud, which provides natural cooling in the desert region of Rajasthan. The decorative patterns on the wall are characteristic of the regional village style. – 1990

The picture shows a man tying a turban, a traditional headdress that holds deep symbolic significance in many cultures – particularly in India. The orange turban shown here is often referred to as a pagri or dastar. The bright orange colour (often called ‘kesariya’ or saffron) symbolises courage, self-sacrifice and spirituality. In Rajasthan, the wrapping techniques and colours often vary from village to village and can even indicate social status or the occasion (such as a wedding). – Khuri – 1990

A man dressed in traditional Rajasthani attire steps out of his house in the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert. He is wearing a striking orange turban and is holding an antique flintlock musket (known locally as a ‘torador’). In the foreground are bulbous clay vessels (amphorae), traditionally used to store water or grain. – 1990

This man, wearing a bright orange turban (safa or pagri), is holding a rifle. It is a torador, a classic Indian matchlock musket. A striking feature is the curved stock, which is often decorated with inlays of ivory or bone. These rifles were used in northern and central India from the 16th century well into the 19th century. They served both for protection and for hunting big game. The barrels were often elaborately chiselled and the stocks painted or inlaid with precious materials. – Khuri – 1990

A potter (Kumhaar) in Rajasthan shaping ceramic vessels on a traditional, hand-operated potter’s wheel made of clay. The potter uses a heavy wheel made of stone or hardened clay, which is often set in motion with a stick. Natural clay is used to create vessels such as cups, jugs and pots. – Khuri – 1990

In front of a traditional mud hut, two women are spinning yarn on a charkha, a hand-operated spinning wheel. Hand spinning is a deeply rooted craft tradition in Rajasthan. One hand turns the drive wheel, whilst the other hand draws out the fibres (usually cotton or wool) into a fine thread and winds it onto the spindle. – Khuri – 1990

Khuri is renowned for preserving ancient craft techniques, which are often practised as a sideline to farming and tourism. In this region, weavers often produce dhurries (flat-woven rugs) or pattu (traditional woollen blankets). The loom is a classic horizontal floor loom. It is portable and perfectly suited to life in the desert. The weaver uses a heavy wooden comb to beat the weft threads of coarse wool (often from sheep or camels) firmly into the warp. The fabrics are extremely durable and are often decorated with geometric patterns typical of the local folklore of the Thar Desert. – 1990

A woman from Khuri in Rajasthan. Her appearance is deeply rooted in the traditions of the local nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. The yellow-green headscarf (odhani) protects her from the intense desert sun and is an essential part of the traditional women’s costume. The golden nose ring (nath) with small decorations is a classic feature of married women in rural areas of Rajasthan. She wears heavy, layered necklaces, including yellow pearl necklaces and silver amulets, which often serve as protective symbols. On her arms are the characteristic white bangles, traditionally made of ivory (nowadays mostly plastic). The red dot on her forehead has spiritual significance and often symbolises the ‘third eye’ or her married status. – 1990

A woman from Khuri in Rajasthan. Her appearance is deeply rooted in the traditions of the local nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. The yellow-green headscarf (odhani) protects her from the intense desert sun and is an essential part of the traditional women’s costume. The golden nose ring (nath) with small decorations is a classic feature of married women in rural areas of Rajasthan. She wears heavy, layered necklaces, including yellow pearl necklaces and silver amulets, which often serve as protective symbols. The red dot on her forehead has spiritual significance and often symbolises the ‘third eye’ or her married status. – 1990

Junagarh Fort in Bikaner features several rooms with striking blue wall decorations. The Badal Mahal (Palace of the Clouds) is particularly famous for this. Many of the blue tiles in the fort, especially in the Gaj Mandir, are blue and white porcelain tiles from Europe (often from the Netherlands or Great Britain), which were installed there in the 18th and 19th centuries. The colour blue was often used to symbolise the rain and coolness of clouds – a precious commodity in the Rajasthan desert. Animals (such as horses or elephants) used to be tethered to the metal ring on the wall. – Bikaner, Rajasthan – 1990

Junagarh Fort, a historic fortress in the city of Bikaner in Rajasthan. It was built between 1588 and 1593 by Raja Rai Singh. The complex is renowned for its 986-metre-long wall featuring 37 bastions. Unlike many other forts in Rajasthan, it is not situated on a hill but on the plain. The facades are largely made of finely carved red sandstone. The main gate is known as Suraj Pol (Sun Gate). – 1990

This structure is Junagarh Fort in Bikaner. It is regarded as one of the most impressive and best-preserved fortresses in India, as, unlike many other forts in the region, it was never captured by enemies. It was built between 1588 and 1593 under Raja Rai Singh. It is constructed mainly from red sandstone, which is typical of Rajasthani architecture. A massive, 986-metre-long wall with 37 bastions surrounds the complex. – 1990

The scene captures a typical, bustling moment at a public transport bus stop in Deshnoke, characterised by improvisation and a dense crowd. Deshnoke (also known as Deshnok) is a small town in the Indian state of Rajasthan, around 30 km south of Bikaner. – 1990

Cattle market in Phalodi, situated in the heart of the Thar Desert between Jaisalmer and Bikaner. Although camel caravans have become very rare, dromedaries remain important as riding and pack animals in the desert. – 1990

Even in the desert, spice traders seek buyers for their wares; here, at the livestock market in Phalodi, they are selling dried chillies. In Indian cuisine, however, chillies are considered as much a vegetable as a spice. – 1990

At the traditional cattle market in Phalodi, this man is preparing a thin flatbread. The freshly chopped vegetables (potatoes and chillies) are staples of everyday Rajasthani cuisine, which makes do with just a few ingredients in the barren desert environment. – 1990

A trader at the livestock market in Phalodi sells traditional, very large metal basins or cooking pans (often referred to as kadhai or tasla). The basins are made of sturdy, hammered iron or sheet steel. The individual metal plates, which have been firmly joined together with rivets, are clearly visible. These handmade vessels are used for preparing large quantities of food at festivals or for agricultural purposes. – 1990

Portrait of an elderly man from the rural areas of Rajasthan. The artfully wrapped turban provides protection from the strong sun, whilst the gold earrings are a traditional form of jewellery for men in this region. – Phalodi – 1990

A man with a full beard and a traditional turban (often referred to as a pagri or pugree). This headdress consists of a long, unsewn piece of cloth that is artfully wrapped around the head. – Phalodi – 1990

The large white turban worn in the Rajasthan region protects against extreme heat and often signifies social status or membership of a particular community. The traditional leather shoes are handmade and typical of this region. They are characterised by their pointed shape and sturdy leatherwork. The simple wooden stick is used by shepherds or elderly villagers in rural areas as a walking stick and a tool. – Phalodi – 1990

A peanut seller (often called a ‘Mungfali-Wala’) stands behind a four-wheeled wooden cart piled high with unshelled peanuts. In the middle stands a small pot, often containing hot coals, to keep the peanuts warm and crispy. A classic pressure lamp (Petromax) can also be seen, which is used for lighting at dusk and in the evening hours. – Phalodi – 1990

Camel carts such as these are a typical and traditional means of transport in the rural areas of Rajasthan. The cart, pulled by a dromedary, is heavily laden with large tree trunks. It is fitted with modern, pneumatic rubber tyres, which make it easier to pull along tarmac roads. – Pokhran – 1990

In the rural and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, water is an extremely scarce resource. It is a traditional, often arduous task for women and young girls to walk for miles every day to wells or water points to provide for their families. The containers are balanced directly on the head using a small, ring-shaped cloth pad (called an indhoni), leaving the hands free whilst walking. The girl wears traditional jewellery such as necklaces and a discreet nose ring. - Lathi - 1990

Women from the desert region around Lathi and Jaisalmer are known for these colourful traditional costumes, which stand in stark contrast to the barren, sandy desert landscape. This woman is carrying a small child in her arms and is dressed in a patterned tunic (often called a kurti), combined with a striking, usually red headscarf (odhni or dupatta), which is artfully draped over her head and shoulders. Typical of this region are the heavy, multi-layered necklaces with beads and silver pendants, as well as the wide bangles, which are often made from imitation ivory, bone or plastic and cover almost the entire forearm. – Lathi – 1990

This young girl from the arid and water-scarce region of the Thar Desert is balancing two containers on her head. At the bottom of her head is a large, ribbed tin can. Placed on top of this is a traditional, shiny vessel made of brass or bronze. Such vessels (often referred to in India as a lota or ghara) are traditionally used to carry and keep water fresh. To distribute the weight and protect the head, a small, ring-shaped fabric pad (known as a chumbal or indhoni) is usually placed directly on the hair beneath the containers. Balancing the load on the head keeps the hands free and allows for an upright posture, but requires extreme dexterity and strong neck and back muscles from a very young age. – Lathi – 1990

A young girl from Lathi in the Thar Desert carries a large, traditional metal vessel (often referred to as a matka or ghara) on her head. Beneath the heavy vessel, a small, ring-shaped cushion made of cloth or straw rests on her head. This stabilises the load and alleviates the pressure. Carrying water containers on the head is a traditional method of transporting water. – 1990

A young girl from Lathi balances a large, gleaming golden metal vessel (traditionally known as a lota or ghada) on her head. Carrying loads on the head is a centuries-old practice. A small, ring-shaped cloth pad (chumli or indhoni) is often placed between the head and the vessel to distribute the pressure and make it easier to balance. In many rural areas without running water, fetching water is a daily task, often involving a walk of several kilometres, which is frequently carried out by women and children. – 1990

The historic fort of Jaisalmer (also known as Sonar Qila or the Golden Fort), situated in the heart of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, India. It is considered one of the few remaining ‘living forts’ in the world. Around a quarter of the old town’s population still lives and works directly within the fort walls today. It was founded in 1156 AD by the Rajput ruler Rawal Jaisal, from whom the city also took its name. The entire complex, as well as the surrounding historic merchant houses (havelis), were built from local yellow sandstone. When the sun shines, the fort glows in a honey-gold hue, earning it the nickname ‘Golden City’. The massive stone blocks were joined together at the time using precise dry-stone masonry techniques (interlocking blocks without cement or mortar). Since 2013, Jaisalmer Fort has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Hill Forts of Rajasthan. – 1990

The city of Jaisalmer lies in the heart of the Thar Desert, some 150 kilometres north-west of Jodhpur as the crow flies. It owed its splendour and wealth entirely to the caravans of the Silk and Spice Routes, which travelled here from Central and South Asia towards the Indus Valley in the west. The city is dominated by the mighty citadel, dating from the 12th to the 16th century. Numerous interior rooms are adorned with paintings and mosaics, and the façades also feature interesting ornamentation. In the lower town are 18th-century palaces, the havelis, which were built for wealthy merchants and boast exceptionally beautifully decorated balconies. The most magnificent building, the Patwah-ki-Haveli from the early 19th century, is particularly fascinating for its incredibly varied chiselled window ornaments. – 1990

The majestic Jaisalmer Fort (also known as Sonar Quila or the Golden Fort), situated in the heart of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, was founded in 1156 AD by the Rajput ruler Rawal Jaisal. It was built from yellow sandstone on Trikuta Hill. The walls shimmer in shades of sand during the day and turn a warm honey gold at sunset. Since 2013, the complex has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Hill Forts of Rajasthan. – 1990

A view of the citadel of Jaisalmer with its imposing, soaring towers, which offer a magnificent panoramic view. French travellers have, quite rightly, called the city the ‘Carcassonne of the Desert’. – 1990

A camel cart, women dressed in traditional colourful saris and a classic car all reflect the lively daily bustle at the foot of the massive defensive walls of the majestic Jaisalmer Fort. The structure is famous above all for its monumental, circular bastions and walls of yellow sandstone, which shimmer like pure gold in the sunlight. It is one of the very few remaining ‘living forts’ in the world, as its interior still houses residential quarters, markets, hotels and centuries-old temples. – 1990

The photograph shows the impressive architecture of Jaisalmer Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan. The entire structure is built from local sandstone, which has been assembled without mortar using precise interlocking joints. One can also see the typical narrow, ascending alleys, which served a defensive purpose, as well as small, ornate window openings (jharokhas) and stone corbels. In the foreground, a person can be seen wearing traditional Rajasthani clothing with a bright orange turban, which emphasises the region’s distinctive character. – 1990

The historic Suraj Pol (also known as the Sun Gate or Surya Gate) is one of the four successive, massive fortified gates of the famous Jaisalmer Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan. The gate was built in 1594 and is deliberately designed in a zigzag curve. This military tactic prevented attackers (particularly those with war elephants) from gaining sufficient momentum to breach the gate with battering rams. Above the archway is a delicately carved, semi-circular stone relief imitating traditional Rajasthani motifs. – 1990

One reaches the citadel of Jaisalmer through the magnificent Surya Pol gateway, with its richly chiselled, harmoniously structured façade. Jaisalmer’s decline began with the development of the major sea routes, before the railway dealt the final blow to the caravan route through the desert. The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 then put a definitive end to trade with the Indus Valley. However, the constantly simmering conflicts between the two neighbours gave the region a new strategic importance, with the result that today the army and tourism are the city’s main sources of income. – 1990

The building depicts the magnificent Tilon Ki Pol gateway leading to the artificial Gadisar Lake in the desert city of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. Constructed from the region’s characteristic golden-yellow sandstone, this two-storey gateway has one of the most fascinating histories. It was commissioned in the 14th century by a wealthy and famous royal courtesan named Tilon. The then ruler (Maharawal) of Jaisalmer initially rejected the structure. As he used the lake regularly, he felt it was beneath his dignity to pass under a gate financed by a courtesan. He threatened to have the gate demolished. Whilst the king was away on a journey, Tilon had the gate completed without further ado. To permanently prevent the threatened demolition, she placed a statue of the god Vishnu (often described as a Krishna temple) atop the gate. As the building was thus regarded as a sacred site, the king was no longer permitted to destroy it. The gate is notable for its classic Rajput architectural style: the jharokhas are delicate, stone-carved, balcony-like bay windows typical of the architecture in Jaisalmer. Two striking pavilions (chattris) crown the outer corners of the gate. Through the large main arch of the gate, one looks directly out onto the calm waters of Gadisar Lake and the small shrines built within the lake. - 1990

The Gadi Sagar Temple, situated in the middle of the historic Gadisar Lake in Jaisalmer. The pavilion was built from the region’s characteristic golden-yellow sandstone and features ornate arches and a traditional dome (chhatri). The lake was artificially created in the 12th century by King Rawal Jaisal. For centuries, it served as a vital drinking water reservoir for the entire fortified city of Jaisalmer. – 1990

The picture shows an ornately decorated chhatri pavilion on Gadisar Lake in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. The artificial lake was built in 1367 by Maharawal Gadsi Singh. For centuries, it served as the vital and primary source of water for the desert city of Jaisalmer. The striking, dome-like pavilions, which stand in or at the edge of the water, are typical features of Rajput architecture. They were constructed from the region’s characteristic golden-yellow sandstone and served as royal cenotaphs, monuments or shaded resting places. – 1990

The intricately carved torana (ornate gateway) of the historic Lodhurva Jain Temple near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. It is an outstanding example of Maru-Gurjara architecture (also known as the Solanki style). The entire structure is built from the characteristic golden-yellow Jaisalmer sandstone. In Indian temple architecture, a torana symbolises the solemn transition from the secular outside world into the sacred, spiritual realm of the temple. The original temple complex was built as early as the 9th century, when Lodhurva was still the capital of the Bhati Rajputs. Following severe destruction caused by invasions, this magnificent gateway was faithfully reconstructed in 1615 AD. – 1990

These buildings in the desert town of Jaisalmer are constructed from the characteristic golden-yellow sandstone of the Thar region. These historic mansions (havelis) dominate the streetscape of the old town. Of particular note are the intricately carved stone balconies with their delicate patterns. – 1990

A lively street scene in a historic, narrow alleyway typical of the architecture in Jaisalmer. The walls and floor are rendered in warm, earthy tones, some adorned with white frames around the doors. The paths are narrow and paved with large stone slabs, which is typical of old fortified towns in Rajasthan. In the middle of the alley, a man stands by a handcart laden with large metal containers, presumably selling milk or water. – 1990

The eye-catching poster at the top left advertises the famous 1989 Bollywood film ‘Maine Pyar Kiya’ (English: I Fell in Love). It features the lead actors Salman Khan and Bhagyashree. This film was a huge milestone in Indian cinema. - Street scene from Jaisalmer featuring a woman in a traditional, bright pink sari. – 1990

A street scene in Jaisalmer. The woman is wearing a classic sari in a striking shade of pink, traditionally wrapped around the body and pulled over the head. On the wall is a faded, hand-painted advertisement for Limca. Limca is a lemon- and lime-flavoured soft drink that is very well known in India; it was launched in 1971 and is now owned by the Coca-Cola Company. The sign above the doorway suggests a furniture shop. On the right-hand side, the rear wheel of a typical Indian roadster bicycle can be seen; this remains the main mode of transport. – 1990

The woman is wearing a traditional odhni (veil/headscarf) over her clothes, which is typical of women in the Thar Desert (Rajasthan). The building is constructed of sun-dried mud bricks, finished with a mud plaster (kucha house). This traditional construction method provides excellent thermal insulation against the extreme heat of the desert regions. – Jaisalmer – 1990

This intricately carved stone façade is located in Jaisalmer Fort in Rajasthan. The fort is world-renowned for its yellow sandstone architecture, which is why it is also known as the ‘Golden City’. The walls are made of local yellow sandstone, which has been assembled without mortar using traditional construction methods. The door on the left has a magnificently carved frame featuring floral patterns and reliefs depicting peacocks and a central wheel (chakra). The ornate, metal-studded wooden doors reflect the region’s classical craftsmanship. – 1990

The picture shows the traditional exterior wall of a mud house in the Jaisalmer area of Rajasthan, decorated with the intricate traditional folk art known as Mandana art. This wall decoration is one of the oldest forms of tribal art in India. It is traditionally applied to walls and floors by women. The paintings are created for festive occasions such as Diwali, weddings or births. They serve to protect the house, welcome deities and attract good fortune. The brown background consists of a mixture of clay and cow dung (Geru Mitti). The white, delicate patterns are painted using a liquid made from white chalk or lime (Khadiya), applied directly by hand or with simple brushes. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house (kucha) in the Jaisalmer region, decorated with white lime paint. A woman in a red sari stands in the doorway, hanging up a bright orange cloth. The white decorations on the brown mud walls are examples of Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal and folk art in India, practised mainly by women in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house (kucha) in the Jaisalmer region, decorated with white lime paint. Standing in the doorway is a woman in a red sari, hanging out the washing. The white decorations on the brown mud walls are examples of Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal and folk art in India, practised mainly by women in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. – 1990

Two children from Jaisalmer peering out from a richly decorated, traditional stone window (known as a jharokha). Historically, jharokhas in palaces and residential buildings served to allow women and children to look out onto the street without being seen themselves (the purdah tradition). The window features a decorative, pointed roof (Chhatri style), with ornamentation at the base. At the top, it features an elegant, multi-segmented keel arch (curved arch), typical of the Rajput architectural style. – 1990

This portrait depicts a girl named Ambu from Jaisalmer in the Thar Desert in Rajasthan. The name of this desert means ‘the land of the dead’. Yet life thrives there nonetheless, for the girl’s name means ‘water’ – a symbol of hope for a fruitful future. Ambu wears a striking, beaded headband in yellow and red, with a round, golden decorative button attached at the front. Traditional golden earrings hang from her ears, featuring delicate filigree patterns and small green accent beads at the bottom. A red dot (bindi) is applied to her forehead. Her eyes are heavily outlined and emphasised with traditional dark kohl. – 1990

A group of musicians from Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, playing traditional folk music on their instruments. They are wearing the colourful turbans (pagris) and white robes typical of this region. The two box-shaped keyboard instruments (on the left and in the middle) are harmoniums. They produce sound via a built-in bellows, which is pumped with one hand whilst the other hand plays the keys. The horizontal drum on the right is a dholak. It is a double-headed hand drum that is very widely used in Indian folk music. The repertoire often includes Qawwali songs and epic chants that have been passed down through generations. – 1990

An elderly man sits on an intricately carved wooden chair, waiting for customers. He is wearing a traditional turban (pagri), a khaki-coloured jacket and white trousers (dhoti). An everyday scene from Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. – 1990

These elderly men are engaged in deep conversation outdoors, whilst a little girl watches from the background. The group is standing in front of an ornately decorated, sandstone-coloured wall, typical of the architecture in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. – 1990

A street scene in Jaisalmer, showing a traditional cobbler (mochi) working outdoors while a customer wearing an orange turban squats in front of him. – Rajasthan – 1990

An elderly woman sits on the ground operating a traditional mechanical beam balance. She is selling a variety of local vegetables, such as green chillies, aubergines and various leafy greens. – Jaisalmer Market – 1990

At a market in Jaisalmer, a young woman wearing a yellow sari is selling various vegetables: potatoes, onions, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, green chillies, spring onions, etc. – 1990

Red chillies are traditionally sun-dried. The intense sunlight draws the moisture out of them. This prevents mould from forming and allows the chillies to be stored for months or even years. This method also concentrates their flavour and heat. In the background are filled jute sacks. They are used to transport and store the dried chillies before they are sold at spice markets or processed into chilli powder. – Jaisalmer, Rajasthan – 1990

A small shop in Jaisalmer, notable for its wide variety of colourful goods displayed in glass jars. A boy sits relaxed in the shop’s entrance, intently reading a newspaper written in Hindi (Devanagari script). This typical traditional shop, often referred to as a kirana shop or paon shop, makes the most of its limited space. – 1990

At the market in Jaisalmer, we see an impressive collection of traditional, handcrafted clay pots known as matkas. These unglazed clay pots have been used for centuries for the natural cooling and storage of drinking water and food. – The pots are expertly stacked in a sturdy structure to air-dry before being fired in the kiln. – 1990

A large collection of hand-painted clay water pots, known as matkas in Indian culture. Matkas utilise the principle of evaporative cooling. Through the microscopic pores of the unglazed clay, a minimal amount of water seeps out and evaporates, keeping the remaining water inside pleasantly cool even in intense heat. The pots are decorated with characteristic patterns. These include geometric shapes such as zigzag lines, waves, dots and bands of lines, usually applied in white, black and reddish earth tones. The production of these vessels is a craft dating back thousands of years, passed down from generation to generation. Each pot is shaped on the potter’s wheel and then artistically painted by hand. – Jaisalmer – 1990

The impressive façade of Patwon Ki Haveli in Jaisalmer, one of the most significant architectural monuments of the ‘Golden City’. The entire residence was built from the local yellow-gold sandstone for which the desert region around Jaisalmer is famous. The façade captivates with its numerous richly decorated, projecting balconies (known as jharokhas) featuring the finest stone carving, reminiscent of lace or lace borders. The delicate stone lattices (jalis) serve not only as decoration but also allow for constant air circulation, keeping the interior of the building cool even in the extreme desert heat. – 1990

The impressive façade of Patwon Ki Haveli in Jaisalmer, one of the most significant architectural monuments of the ‘Golden City’. The complex was commissioned in 1805 by Guman Chand Patwa, an extremely wealthy merchant dealing in brocade, gold and silver thread, and opium. It is not a single building, but a connected complex of five separate havelis, built over a period of around 50 to 60 years for his five sons. Parts of the complex are now managed by the state heritage authority, whilst another part serves as a private museum (Kothari’s Patwa Haveli Museum), offering an insight into the luxurious lifestyle of the merchant class in the 19th century. – 1990

In the historic desert town of Jaisalmer in the state of Rajasthan, a woman dressed in traditional clothing walks along an alleyway within the walls of Jaisalmer Fort. The buildings are constructed entirely from the region’s characteristic golden sandstone, which is why Jaisalmer is also known as the ‘Golden City’. In the background and to the sides, one can see the intricately decorated stone façades, bay windows and balconies of traditional Indian mansions, known as havelis. – 1990

A tailor sits engrossed in his work at his mechanical sewing machine in the historic desert town of Jaisalmer. The window frame is a typical example of the delicate jharokhas (artfully carved sandstone balconies) for which Rajasthani architecture is famous. – 1990

A woman in traditional dress steps out of an intricately decorated doorway, carrying a gleaming water jug. The massive stone columns and the frame around the door are covered from top to bottom with delicate floral patterns, ornaments and reliefs, of the kind frequently found on the historic haveli mansions in Jaisalmer. An outstanding example of the region’s traditional craftsmanship. – 1990

The famous Salim Singh ki Haveli (also known as Moti Mahal) in the desert city of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. The building was commissioned in 1815 by Salim Singh, the then extremely powerful and equally feared Prime Minister (Diwan) of the Kingdom of Jaisalmer. The upper storey features a striking, sweeping structure modelled on a peacock and is surrounded by a total of 38 elegant balconies, each adorned with unique ornamentation. Due to its ship-like shape, the building is also popularly known as Jahaz Mahal (Ship Palace). The entire façade is constructed from the golden sandstone typical of Jaisalmer. It captivates with its masterfully crafted balconies (known as jharokhas), delicate lattice windows and curved Bengali roofs. – 1990

This relief is located on the outer wall of the historic Lodurva Jain Temple near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, India. This ancient temple complex was once the capital of the Bhatti Rajputs before Jaisalmer was founded. It is renowned for its intricate stonework and delicate carvings in yellow sandstone. - Seated on the back of the richly decorated elephant is a figure in a traditional posture, likely holding a weapon or an elephant goad (ankusha) to guide the animal. – 1990 Latticed windows and curved Bengali roofs. – 1990

A woman walks down a street in Jaisalmer wearing traditional, colourful clothing. She is wearing a pink ghagra choli (a loose-fitting skirt and top) and a patterned red dupatta (veil) covering her head. She skilfully balances a large, rolled-up quilt or mattress on her head. In her right hand, she also carries a full, light-green plastic bag. Carrying heavy loads on the head is a common method of transport in many rural regions of India. – 1990

Barbati, a nomad dressed in the traditional attire of the Bhopa community from the desert region around Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, sits on a stone step with her toddler on her lap. She wears a traditional ensemble consisting of a vividly coloured veil (known as an odhni or dupatta) and a printed blouse (choli), as well as a floor-length, loose-fitting skirt (ghagra). A striking feature is the large, golden nose ring, which is artfully fastened to her hair or ear by a chain. In many rural regions of Rajasthan, this piece of jewellery signifies a woman’s marital status. On her forehead, a round, glittering pendant sits directly at the hairline, a typical element of Rajasthani wedding and festive attire. On her wrists she wears thick, traditional bangles (often made of imitation ivory, bone or colourful plastic), which can cover almost the entire forearm and are firmly rooted in the regional culture. – 1990

The nomad Barbati in traditional, colourful festive dress. The striking pink veil covers her head and is often artfully draped over her shoulders. On her forearms she wears stacked, wide bangles in the traditional colours of white, red and blue, typically made from imitation ivory, plastic or glass. A delicate, traditional tattoo pattern can be seen on the back of her hand. – Jaisalmer – 1990

This portrait of the nomad Barbati is characterised by a wealth of symbolic and ornate jewellery: on her forehead, just beneath her veil, she wears a round, bell-shaped ornament. This piece of jewellery is typical of married women in Rajasthan. A large, delicately crafted nose ring, attached to the hair or behind the ear with a fine chain (often studded with pearls). It is traditionally regarded as a sign of marital status. – Jaisalmer – 1990

The bright pink veil worn by the nomad Barbati covers her hair and is typical of women from the region around Jaisalmer. It serves both as protection from the sun and as a sign of respect. The striking, round ornament on her forehead is a traditional hairpiece often worn by married women in Rajasthan. The large, elaborately decorated golden nose ring is connected to the earrings or her hair by a delicate chain. She wears a bindi on her forehead. Her neck is adorned with several heavy, traditional necklaces (some decorated with coins). – 1990

The bright pink veil worn by the nomad Barbati covers her hair and is typical of women from the region around Jaisalmer. It serves both as protection from the sun and as a sign of respect. The striking, round ornament on her forehead is a traditional hairpiece often worn by married women in Rajasthan. The large, elaborately decorated golden nose ring is connected to the earrings or her hair by a delicate chain. She wears a bindi on her forehead. – 1990

Barbati, a nomad from the Thar Desert, makes chapati, the flatbread known in various forms throughout the Near East. She kneads flour, salt and water into a smooth dough, which she shapes into a round disc between her hands, much like a pizza chef, and then cooks in a pan, turning it several times. – 1990

Barbati, a nomad, is preparing dough outdoors whilst wearing her traditional Indian attire. She is dressed in a colourful ensemble consisting of a dark top and skirt with a floral pattern, as well as a bright pink veil (dupatta or odhni) covering her head. Her jewellery is very striking and includes several necklaces (including one with coin pendants), bangles on both wrists, earrings and traditional headdresses. In front of her stands a clay bowl containing dough, and she is currently shaping a ball of dough with her hands. Next to the bowl is a small bottle of oil. – Jaisalmer region – 1990

Barbati, a nomad, is preparing dough outdoors whilst wearing her traditional Indian attire. She is dressed in a colourful ensemble consisting of a dark top and skirt with a floral pattern, as well as a bright pink veil (dupatta or odhni) covering her head. Her jewellery is very striking and includes several necklaces (including one with coin pendants), bangles on both wrists, earrings and traditional headdresses. In front of her stands a clay bowl containing dough, and she is currently shaping a chapati with her hands. Next to the bowl is a small bottle of oil. – Jaisalmer region – 1990

Making dough for flatbreads is a daily ritual in almost every Indian household. The everyday, unleavened flatbread chapati is made from whole wheat flour (atta) and water. Preparation: Flour and water are mixed in a shallow bowl (often made of clay, brass, or wood, called a parat) and kneaded vigorously until a smooth dough forms. This is divided into small, uniform balls and rolled between the palms of the hands. The balls are either rolled flat with a rolling pin (belan) or flattened by hand. The bread is baked directly in the embers. – Jaisalmer region – 1990

Preparation of Aloo Gobi, a classic North Indian vegetable dish. It consists mainly of cauliflower florets (gobi) and potatoes (aloo). The vegetables are mixed with a yellowish liquid, which is turmeric powder dissolved in water or oil. Turmeric gives the dish its characteristic golden-yellow color. It is usually cooked over an open fire. It is then gently braised or fried in a kadhai (an Indian wok) along with cumin, ginger, garlic, and onions. The finished dish is usually served dry (sabzi) without much sauce and garnished with fresh cilantro. – Jaisalmer – at the home of the nomad Barbati – 1990

Portrait of a young Indian woman in traditional clothing from the Jaisalmer region. Her style of dress and jewelry reflect India’s rural culture. She wears a striped top (choli) paired with a red, patterned skirt (ghaghra) and a matching headscarf (odhni or dupatta). On her wrist, she wears numerous light green glass bangles as well as a wide silver bracelet. Her face is adorned with traditional earrings (jhumkas) and a delicate nose ring (nath). – 1990

This historic, ornately decorated truck (often known as the “Nissan One Ton” or Nissan 4W73) was photographed in the desert region around Jaisalmer. These rugged four-wheel-drive vehicles were originally developed for military use and later adapted for civilian use. The body and the wooden superstructure above the cab are decorated with detailed floral patterns, ornaments, and inscriptions in Hindi and Sanskrit. A large eye is painted on the hood. This widespread symbol traditionally serves as protection against the “evil eye” (Nazar) and is said to protect the vehicle and its crew on long journeys. A curtain made of fine metal chains hangs in front of the front bumper. These fringes swing back and forth while driving, producing a rattling sound that is also believed to contribute to the ritual warding off of evil spirits. An image of a deity is affixed to the top of the front panel, a feature typical of Indian trucks, to invoke divine blessings for the journey. – 1990

This truck is a classic example of the colorful and artistic truck decoration that is a tradition in India and Pakistan. Indian script (Devanagari) can also be seen above the windshield. The license plate displays the letters “RNM.” In the old Indian license plate system (in use until the late 1980s), the combination “RN” specifically stood for the state of Rajasthan. On the left side, a camel pulls a transport cart—a common mode of transportation in Rajasthan. - The vehicle and scenery shown bear a striking resemblance to the famous truck from the Indian film “Road, Movie” (2009/2010), starring Abhay Deol, which was also filmed in the distinctive desert landscapes of Rajasthan. – 1990

Dromedaries and their guides near the city of Jaisalmer. These animals no longer carry spices, but instead transport tourists on excursions in the surrounding area. – 1990

The Thar Desert stretches largely across the Indian state of Rajasthan and parts of Pakistan, and is known for its combination of various desert landscapes. The eroded, rocky hill in the background (Bhakars) is characteristic of the foothills and isolated ridges that repeatedly break through the sandy plains of the Thar. The pronounced wind ripples on the undulating dunes in the foreground reflect the sandy habitats that characterize large parts of the region. The sparse shrubs and grasses in the sand represent the typical xerophytic (drought-resistant) flora of the Thar, such as thorny shrub species (Capparis decidua or Acacia). These deep-rooted plants also serve as important soil stabilizers against wind erosion. – 1990

In the Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, which stretches across northwestern India (primarily Rajasthan) and parts of Pakistan, these small creatures play a remarkable role in the ecosystem. They belong to the family of darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae). These beetles use a sophisticated method to obtain water. In the cool morning hours, they position themselves head-down on the dune crests (often referred to as fog-basking). Moisture in the air condenses on their smooth exoskeletons and flows directly into their mouthparts. As saprophages, they feed primarily on organic waste, dried plant matter, and the dung of desert animals such as camels. In this way, they maintain the nutrient cycle of the barren sand dunes. While temperatures in the Thar Desert can reach extreme levels during the day, the beetles escape the deadly heat by burrowing into the sand at lightning speed or seeking shelter under sparse vegetation. – 1990

Much of the Thar Desert consists of flat sandy plains and dune landscapes, some of which are covered with thorny shrubs. In areas without vegetation, such as the famous Sam Sand Dunes near Jaisalmer, one can find striking, untouched ripple structures like the one in the photo. The sand ripples and shifting dunes in the Thar Desert change primarily during the hot summer months due to the strong southwest monsoon winds. The winter winds play a rather minor role. – 1990

Perhaps camels laden with spices once passed through here on their way across the Thar Desert in Rajasthan. In the distance, you can see a caravanserai where the camel drivers would rest at nightfall before continuing their long journey toward the Middle East the next morning. - 1990

Photo Gallery