Color illustration of a pepper plant (Capsicum annuum L.). This spice, native to South and Central America, is now cultivated in most tropical countries, particularly in Indonesia. In more temperate regions, such as Southern Europe, however, the cultivation of the milder vegetable variety known as bell pepper has gained greater importance. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

The colour plate shows a historical botanical illustration of the plant Capsicum longum (a variety of Spanish pepper, now usually classified as Capsicum annuum), which belongs to the nightshade family. These plants require plenty of sun, warmth and nutrient-rich, well-drained soil. The fruits are used worldwide as a spice (hot or mild) and as a vegetable in cooking. The substance responsible for the heat is capsaicin, which is also used in medicine (e.g. in heat patches). Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

The photo shows ripe, red chili peppers (Capsicum annuum variety), which are commonly sold under the names “peperoni” or “cayenne.” These elongated peppers typically have a moderate to strong heat level. They are excellent for fresh salsas, hot sauces, stir-fry dishes, or for drying to make homemade chili powder. Red chili peppers are rich in vitamins A and C. The active ingredient capsaicin not only provides the heat but also boosts the metabolism. - 1990

A large quantity of fresh green chili peppers. These peppers are characterized by their slender, elongated shape and intense heat. - 1990

Freshly harvested chili peppers at various stages of ripeness. – 1990

Like all chili peppers worldwide, these varieties originated in Central and South America. Archaeological findings show that indigenous peoples in regions of present-day Mexico and Brazil were already using and cultivating wild varieties of this plant thousands of years ago. It wasn’t until the 15th and 16th centuries that Spanish and Portuguese sailors brought the hot peppers to Europe, Africa, and Asia, where they quickly became a staple of local cuisines. – 1990

At the market in Jodhpur, local farmers sell their own produce, including red chili peppers and eggplants. – 1990

Color chart of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), the most important species of the genus Piper in the pepper family. The genus Piper comprises about two thousand species, only a few of which are used as spices. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Black peppercorns (Piper nigrum). These are the dried, unripe fruits of the pepper plant. During the sun-drying process, the outer skin shrinks and turns dark brown to black. – 1990

The fruits and leaves of the true pepper plant (Piper nigrum). Depending on the time of harvest and processing method, this tropical vine yields the familiar black, green, white, and red peppercorns. Green pepper: Harvested unripe and either pickled fresh or quickly dried. Black pepper: Also harvested green, but ferments during slow drying in the sun, causing the skin to wrinkle and turn black. - 1990

The berries have changed color from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep-green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stem encircles the strongly branched shoot. White pepper: Fully ripe, red berries are harvested for this. After soaking in water, the outer pulp is removed, leaving only the light-colored seed. - 1990

Pepper harvest in the Cardamom Hills near Thekkadi, a small town in the southwestern Indian state of Kerala. The slopes of these hills are sparsely covered with deciduous trees, whose trunks are enveloped by the dense foliage of the pepper bushes. Pepper is a climbing plant that—much like wild grapevines or ivy—grows upward on trees and rock faces using its tough, supple tendrils and adhesive aerial roots. To harvest the long clusters of pepper berries, the picker uses a sturdy bamboo pole—on which he has trimmed the side shoots to the width of a step—as a ladder. – 1990

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is produced by harvesting the unripe, green berries of the pepper bush and then drying them. During the drying process, the berries ferment, shrivel, and take on their characteristic dark brown to black color. The spice’s typical, pungent flavor comes from the alkaloid piperine it contains. – 1990

Color chart of ginger (Zingiber officinale R.). This fast-growing perennial bears a certain resemblance to our common reed. Its robust rhizomes—underground stems as thick as a thumb—branch out horizontally and form root tubers with aromatic flesh. They produce two distinctly different above-ground shoots. The foliage shoots, which grow to a height of one to one and a half meters, bear lanceolate, alternate leaves up to twenty centimeters long and two centimeters wide. The flowering or inflorescence shoots, on the other hand, are only about thirty centimeters tall and covered with short, scale-like bracts. They form spike-like inflorescences, about five centimeters long, with greenish-yellow flowers. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

This botanical illustration depicts the ginger plant (Zingiber officinale). It has upright, reed-like shoots with narrow, lance-shaped leaves. The inflorescence is a separate, leafless stalk with cone-like bracts and yellow-purple flowers. The characteristic underground ginger root is used as a spice and remedy. Detailed botanical drawings of the individual parts of the flower can also be seen at the bottom right. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

A fresh ginger root (Zingiber officinale). Strictly speaking, this is the underground rhizome of the ginger plant. It is characterized by its knobby shape and a light brown, slightly woody skin. The juicy, yellowish interior has a pleasantly spicy, aromatic, and slightly lemony flavor. Ginger is popular as a versatile spice in soups, curries, and teas, as well as a traditional home remedy for colds and nausea. – 1990

Ginger is generally harvested during the tropical winter. To do this, farmers dig up the plants with a pitchfork, taking care not to damage the root tubers. The yield per hectare varies considerably from region to region: while it can reach up to eight tons in India, it is only about half that in Jamaica. – 1990

A large quantity of fresh, unpeeled ginger (Zingiber officinale). The roots are irregularly branched and have a light brown, slightly fibrous skin. Ginger is widely used in cooking and as a remedy due to its spicy flavor and health-promoting properties, such as essential oils and pungent compounds. – 1990

Ginger is available for sale at Pasar Beringharjo, the most famous and important spice market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

A large quantity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) is poured out of a jute sack onto the ground. The ginger roots (rhizomes) are cleaned, often peeled, and dried in the sun. Ginger is used as an aromatic cooking spice, as a base for ginger tea, or is valued in traditional medicine for its medicinal properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

Color plate of the clove (Caryophyllus (Syzygium) aromaticus L.). The illustration originally appeared in an issue of “Curtis’s Botanical Magazine” from 1827. This historical botanical illustration depicts a flowering branch of the clove tree, whose unopened, dried flower buds are used as cloves in cooking. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

These are dried cloves, which are used as an aromatic spice in both sweet and savory dishes. They are rich in essential oils and have a slightly spicy, peppery, and intense flavor. In traditional medicine, they are believed to have anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties. - 1990

Just before flowering, the buds—or cloves—are ready to be harvested. A five-year-old clove tree is about six to eight meters tall and robust enough for its first “harvest.” After picking the flower buds, the tree is allowed a rest period of eighteen to twenty-four months before the next harvest. This cycle can be maintained until the tree dies or is felled. – 1990

Dried cloves rightly bear their French name, “Clou de girofle” (clove bud). The bud, which is three to four millimeters in diameter and a beautiful dark brown, consists of tightly packed petals; the stem, formed from the calyx, is ten to twelve millimeters long. During the drying process, cloves lose nearly half their weight. The yield from a single tree is approximately ten kilograms, rarely more. – 1990

A large quantity of freshly harvested cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) spread out to dry. The cloves have their characteristic nail-like structure, with a stem and a bud-like head. The mixture of reddish-brown and still light green to yellowish buds indicates that they are in the transition phase following harvest. Traditionally, cloves are dried in the sun after harvest until they take on their familiar, uniform dark brown color and become hard. – 1990

Illustration of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) showing the leaves, the rootstock with its rhizomes, and the flowering stem with flowers, fruits, and seeds. Cardamom belongs to the ginger family, but its effects are less intense than those of ginger itself; furthermore, it is the seeds, not the root tubers, that are used. Cardamom is a staple in every curry blend, but it is also a key ingredient in gingerbread, along with cinnamon, cloves, coriander, and anise. The Chinese regard cardamom as an effective remedy for digestive complaints of all kinds. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Cardamom fields cover the mountains of the same name, which stretch inland for over 300 kilometers along the Malabar Coast in the Indian state of Kerala. Like most spices, cardamom requires a very hot and humid climate. It grows best in humus-rich soil in the shade of large evergreen trees. It prefers marshy locations and even proximity to a watercourse. The underground rootstock is a tuberous rhizome with fleshy roots from which reed-like above-ground stems grow. Each of these produces lance-shaped, 30-centimeter-long sheathing leaves. This term refers to leaves that partially envelop the stem on which they grow. Other, shorter stems bear small flowers at their base. These are greenish-white or purplish-violet and grow near the ground in two or three clusters, varying in length between 20 and 50 centimeters. When ripe, these flowers form egg-shaped fruits or capsules. - 1990

Freshly harvested green cardamom pods (Elettaria cardamomum) being sorted before the drying process. Cardamom belongs to the ginger family and is considered one of the most expensive spices in the world, after saffron and vanilla. When fresh, the spindle-shaped pods are plump, a vibrant green, and still have the small brown stems by which they hung from the plant’s inflorescence. It is only through the subsequent drying process that they acquire their characteristic, slightly wrinkled texture, familiar from the spice rack. – 1990

Cardamom is considered the third most expensive spice in the world, after saffron and vanilla. It is prized for its complex, aromatic flavour and is used in a variety of ways. Cardamom is an essential ingredient in curries, teas (such as masala chai), desserts and baked goods worldwide. In traditional medicine, it is valued for its digestive and anti-inflammatory properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

The photo shows a large quantity of green cardamom (whole pods). Cardamom belongs to the ginger family and is one of the finest spices in the world. These dried fruits are known for their sweet and spicy aroma. It is one of the most expensive spices in the world, as the capsules are harvested primarily by hand. Cardamom is widely used in curries, Middle Eastern dishes, baked goods, or to enhance the flavor of coffee and tea. – 1990

Color chart of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). The plant, which may have originated in India, is a close relative of ginger. Today, turmeric is cultivated and found growing wild from the Indian subcontinent (the Malabar Coast, Madras, Bengal) throughout Southeast Asia to Oceania, as well as in Madagascar, the Antilles, and Brazil. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

When the leaves begin to wilt, turmeric is harvested by digging up the root tubers. Two varieties of turmeric, or yellow root, are available on the market: the round variety, which comes from the thick main tuber, and the elongated variety, which comes from the branches of this rhizome. — 1990

These tubers are fresh turmeric roots (rhizomes of the Curcuma longa plant). They resemble ginger roots in appearance, but are usually slightly narrower, more finger-like in shape, and have a characteristic ring-shaped pattern on their brownish skin. Beneath the skin lies an intensely orange-yellow flesh that stains strongly. When freshly grated or finely chopped, they impart an earthy, slightly bitter flavor to Asian curries, soups, and rice dishes. They are the main ingredient in the trendy drink “golden milk” or freshly brewed turmeric tea. – 1990

Turmeric at the most famous and important spice market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), also known as yellow root, is a medicinal and spice plant native to South Asia that is valued for its intense yellow colour and anti-inflammatory properties. The most important active ingredient is the polyphenol curcumin. – Sulawesi – 1990

Packaged turmeric roots for sale at the market in the village of Bontosunggu on Sulawesi. The pigment curcumin, or turmeric yellow, found in the tubers is a key ingredient in curry powder, which is actually a blend of various flavorings rather than a single spice. Other ingredients include ground peppercorns (Indian pepper), cardamom, coriander, and various other aromatic substances. The proportions of the individual spices vary from region to region; furthermore, different curry blends are used depending on the dish. In India, turmeric yellow is also used to dye textiles. And various Polynesian tribes, for example on the Marquesas Islands and in Wallis, use it to dye their hair. – 1990

Color illustration of the true nutmeg (Myristica fragrans H.) from a German work of the last century. The illustration shows a flowering branch alongside the various stages of development and details of the fruit. The pinnate, alternate leaves are evergreen, up to fifteen centimeters long, glossy green on top, and pale green with a silvery sheen on the underside. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

The botanical illustration shows the nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). The leaves are dark green, leathery, elliptical in shape and taper to a point. The small, pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers grow in the leaf axils. The pear-shaped fruits split open when ripe, exposing the seed. A bright red, net-like tissue (mace) surrounds the dark seed. The hard, dark kernel contains the actual nutmeg with its characteristic marbled structure inside. Plate: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

This historical botanical illustration from *The Botanical Magazine* (1827) by William Jackson Hooker depicts a ripe, split fruit of the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans). The thick, bright orange outer husk surrounds the seed. When the fruit is ripe, it splits open of its own accord. The two important spices obtained from a single fruit are: Mace (mace flower): The bright red, net-like tissue (aril) visible inside the opened shell. It envelops the actual nut. When dried, it is used as a spice in its own right. The nutmeg: The dark brown seed at the centre of the whole fruit. In the illustration, it shimmers darkly beneath the red coat of the mace. Plate: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Nutmegs (Myristica fragrans) are the dried, hard seeds of the nutmeg tree’s fruit. They are primarily used as a spice in dishes such as mashed potatoes, spinach, and Christmas cookies. The nuts should be freshly grated to release their full flavor. Consuming large quantities (more than one whole nut) can be harmful to health or even toxic. – 1990

Freshly opened nutmeg fruits. The flesh of these apricot-like fruits surrounds the large seed, the nutmeg. The striking red aril or seed coat is dried and sold as mace or mazis. – Banda Neira – Moluccas – 1990

Still life with a branch bearing fruit and open nutmeg fruits, as well as a collection basket and a bamboo picking drum called a gaigai. This is open on one side and equipped with two gripping teeth. The fruit is stripped off and falls into the cone-shaped collection drum. On Banda Besar, as on the other Moluccan islands, the harvest takes place twice a year, in June and October. - 1990

These seeds are freshly harvested nutmegs (Myristica fragrans) from the Indonesian Moluccas. Two main components are clearly visible: Mace (Macis): This is the bright red, net-like tissue (seed coat) that surrounds the nut. It is dried and used as a spice in its own right. Nutmeg: The dark, hard kernel inside, which is grated after drying. – 1990

Mazis laid out to dry in the sun give off a distinctive scent. When soaked in water, the strands swell up again immediately. From this soaked mazis, an essential oil with a pungent, spicy, and rather bitter scent is extracted, which is used in pharmaceuticals. – 1990

Chalked nutmegs are nuts that have been dipped in slaked lime after harvesting. This gives them a characteristic thin white layer on the surface or in the grooves. There are two main reasons for this traditional method: The lime effectively protects the dried seeds from insect infestation and mold during storage and long-distance transport. Chalking prevents the seeds from germinating, which is important for global export. – 1990

Color chart of the spice or true vanilla (Vanilla planifolia). This orchid species, native to the tropics of the New World, is now cultivated around the equator and regarded by some as a flavoring agent and by others as a true spice. It was already used in pre-Columbian times by the indigenous peoples of Central America to flavor tobacco and cocoa. The Spanish conquistadors brought the vanilla plant to Europe at the end of the 15th century; later, attempts were made to cultivate the plant in various tropical colonies, which succeeded only when the problem of the lack of natural pollinators—especially hummingbirds—was overcome through self-pollination. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 199

The picture shows two different spices, each tied into a bundle. The first bundle consists of vanilla beans. They are dark brown to black, elastic, and have a slightly glossy surface. The second bundle consists of cinnamon sticks. They are made from the dried bark of cinnamon trees, are light brown in color, and have a woody, rolled texture. – 1990

As a vine-like orchid, the vanilla plant relies on a supporting tree. It anchors itself to the trunk with tendrils that grow from its shoots and can grow up to ten meters tall. The leaves are oblong to egg-shaped, thick and fleshy, and a rich green. On plantations, the climbing plants are allowed to grow up light-tolerant tree species and are pruned back to a certain height every year. They can live up to fifty years. – 1990

A bundle of dried vanilla beans, with a fresh, not yet fully matured fruit placed on top for comparison. The cylindrical pods, which can grow up to twenty-five centimeters long, change color from yellow to brown as they ripen. After harvesting, the pods are left to ferment by alternating exposure to sunlight with storage in sealed containers. During this process, they turn blackish, and the glycoside in the pod’s skin is broken down into fructose and vanillin. – 1990

Color chart featuring a twig and dried bark of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum sp.). The finest cinnamon comes from the Ceylon cinnamon tree, which is now found from southern India through Southeast Asia and Indonesia to China. It has also been introduced to the Seychelles, Mauritius, Madagascar, the Antilles, Guyana, and Brazil. However, it is most common in Sri Lanka, where four subspecies are distinguished. The plantations are located primarily in the southwest of the island, from the coast up to an altitude of 1,000 meters. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

This botanical illustration depicts the Ceylon cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum verum, synonym Cinnamomum zeylanicum). It shows a branch with the characteristic trifoliate leaves and white inflorescences. Also included are botanical cross-sections of flowers, stamens and ovaries for identification purposes. Plate: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Cinnamon sticks are made from the dried bark of cinnamon trees. The type of cinnamon can be identified by its visual structure. If the sticks consist of thin, delicate layers of bark, they are Ceylon cinnamon (also called “true cinnamon”), which differs significantly from the thicker, usually single-rolled bark of Cassia cinnamon. Ceylon cinnamon comes primarily from Sri Lanka. Cassia cinnamon usually comes from China or Indonesia. Ceylon has a refined, sweet, and subtle flavor. Cassia has a sharper and more intense aroma. Ceylon cinnamon contains only very small traces of the compound coumarin. Cassia cinnamon, on the other hand, contains significantly higher amounts, which is why Ceylon cinnamon is considered safer for regular consumption in larger quantities. – 1990

A flowering cinnamon tree in Sri Lanka. Various environmental factors contribute to the growth of this spice tree here. First, the high average temperature of twenty-five to thirty degrees; second, annual rainfall of at least two thousand millimeters; and finally, sandy soils with a high quartz content. The plantations, which require no special care, are established as dense nurseries. Farmers limit their efforts to occasional hoeing, weeding, and fertilizing with natural materials such as manure or copra residues. However, the tree must be pruned regularly so that it does not grow too tall. The cinnamon tree then develops numerous root suckers and takes on a shrub-like form. The cinnamon tree is propagated by seed, cuttings, and layering. – 1990

A worker in Sri Lanka produces cinnamon sticks using traditional methods. This process involves peeling the bark from the branches of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum verum). Cinnamon is the inner bark of this tree. First, the outer, rough bark is scraped off the branch. The remaining bark is rubbed with a brass rod to separate it from the wood. Then, a special knife is used to peel off the thin inner bark layer in long strips. These pieces of bark are intertwined and dried, causing them to roll up into the familiar cinnamon sticks. Sri Lanka is known worldwide for its high-quality Ceylon cinnamon, also known as ‘true cinnamon’. Production is traditionally often in the hands of the Salagama caste. - 1990

Cinnamon sticks stacked closely together, viewed from above. The characteristic spiral-shaped layers of the tree bark are clearly visible. Ceylon cinnamon (“true cinnamon”) consists of several extremely thin layers of bark that are tightly rolled together like a cigar. In Cassia cinnamon (Chinese cinnamon), the individual pieces of bark are usually thick and coarse and curl inward from both sides (often like a “U” or a double spiral). – 1990

A large bundle of cinnamon sticks, which are obtained from the dried inner bark of cinnamon trees. Cinnamon is used worldwide as a spice in cooking, baking and beverages. The picture shows the traditional harvesting and storage in bundles, as is customary in growing regions in Sri Lanka. – 1990

This map shows the historic spice trade routes that linked Asia, Africa and Europe for centuries. The red lines mark both the maritime routes across the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic, and the overland caravan routes (often linked to the Incense Road and the Silk Road). They illustrate how precious commodities such as spices, resins (e.g. myrrh and frankincense) and essential oils were transported from their places of production in the Middle East, India and the islands of South-East Asia to Europe.

Java is the heart of Indonesian tea cultivation, accounting for almost 90% of the total area under cultivation. West Java, especially around Bandung and the Puncak Pass, is known for its full-bodied, sweet teas and picturesque plantations. The tea plantations, often located at altitudes of over 1,000 metres, are popular destinations for enjoying the cool mountain air and green landscape. The picture was taken between Cisarua and the Puncak Pass in 1990

Tea picker on Java. The photo was taken between Cisarua and Puncak Pass – 1990.

Java is the heart of Indonesian tea cultivation, accounting for almost 90% of the total area under cultivation. West Java, especially around Bandung and the Puncak Pass, is known for its full-bodied, sweet teas and picturesque plantations. The tea plantations, often located at altitudes of over 1,000 metres, are popular destinations for enjoying the cool mountain air and green landscape. The picture was taken between Cisarua and the Puncak Pass in 1990

Garlic plantation near Tawangmangu – A special type of garlic is also grown on Java. It is Java Solo garlic (also known as pearl garlic or monobulb), a rare, mild variety of garlic that consists of a single large round clove instead of the usual cluster of cloves. It is ideal for Asian dishes and easy to peel and prepare. – 1990

Onion fields in Central Java, in the area between the town of Magetan and the village of Sarangan on the slopes of the 3,265-metre-high Mount Lawu. The volcanic soil is extremely fertile, especially as the terraced fields are artificially irrigated. - 1990

All over Java, you come across fields of pepper plants, on which the pods hang, first green, then yellow and finally red, and which are an indispensable part of the islanders' diet. The undemanding plant thrives particularly well in the fertile volcanic soil. Incidentally, pepper plants are the only spice plants that contain high levels of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and carotenoids (provitamin A). – 1990

A woman picks green chillies near Majenang / Cilacap – 1990

Little by little, the bucket fills with green peppers. Near Majenang / Cilacap – 1990

Red chillies at the spice market in Yogyakarta. - The best place to buy spices in Yogyakarta is the traditional Pasar Beringharjo market. There you will find a wide selection of local spices, herbs, traditional ingredients for jamu (Indonesian herbal medicine) as well as coffee and tea. – 1990

Fresh green chillies are always popular at the market in Surabaya in north-east Java, as they serve as both a spice and a healthy vegetable. But peppers have other beneficial effects too. They are highly stimulating, aid digestion and have a laxative effect. Their active ingredient, capsaicin, is used in dentistry as a painkiller. And as a powerful antiseptic, peppers protect food from spoiling to a certain extent, which is particularly important in hot and humid tropical countries. – 1990

In Yogyakarta, Pasar Beringharjo is the most famous and important market for spices. It is considered one of the oldest and largest traditional markets in the city. – 1990

The photo shows an elderly Javanese woman (often respectfully called Mbah or Ibu) from the region around Lake Sarangan (Telaga Sarangan) in East Java, Indonesia. The region lies on the slopes of the volcanic Mount Lawu. It is known for its cool mountain climate and traditional agriculture. Many older women in this area traditionally work as vendors at local markets or sell fresh vegetables and fruits to visitors at the lake. – 1990

In Yogyakarta, Pasar Beringharjo is the most famous and important market for spices. It is considered one of the oldest and largest traditional markets in the city. – 1990

A woman at the market in Surabaya, Indonesia's second largest city on the north-eastern tip of the main Indonesian island of Java. – 1990

In Yogyakarta, Pasar Beringharjo is the most famous and important market for spices. It is considered one of the oldest and largest traditional markets in the city. – 1990

Ginger is available for sale at Pasar Beringharjo, the most famous and important spice market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

Turmeric at the most famous and important spice market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

Bananas are also sold at Pasar Beringharjo, Yogyakarta's famous spice market. – 1990

A girl offers a whole bunch of bananas for sale. Pasar Beringharjo, the famous spice market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

A becak (pronounced [bet?ak]) is a type of bicycle rickshaw that is particularly common on the island of Java in Indonesia. Yogyakarta – 1990

Cyclists at the market in Yogyakarta - 1990

The Borobudur Temple, the largest Buddhist temple ever built, rises northwest of the city of Yogyakarta in Central Java. With its countless bell-shaped stupas and Buddha statues, the complex is one of the finest examples of sacred architecture in South Asia. – 1990

The bas-reliefs on the terrace walls of Borobudur are of incomparable beauty. All the faces radiate a serene happiness. The presence of such a Buddhist sanctuary in an archipelago that is now almost exclusively Islamic may come as a surprise. However, it is important to note that from the 8th century onwards, Indian peoples migrated to Southeast Asia in waves, bringing with them elements of an important Hindu-Buddhist high culture. Three bas-reliefs in Borobudur depict sailing ships that undoubtedly correspond to those that transported spices as early as the 1st millennium. – 1990

Three bas-reliefs in Borobudur depict sailing ships that undoubtedly correspond to those that transported spices as early as the 1st millennium. – 1990

The bas-reliefs on the terrace walls of Borobudur are of incomparable beauty. All the faces radiate a serene happiness. The presence of such a Buddhist sanctuary in an archipelago that is now almost exclusively Islamic may come as a surprise. However, it is important to note that from the 8th century onwards, Indian peoples migrated to Southeast Asia in waves, bringing with them elements of an important Hindu-Buddhist high culture. – 1990

The Borobudur temple is believed to have been built between 778 and 856, but like the rest of Central Java, it was abandoned just a hundred years after its completion and buried under a mountain of ash for a thousand years following an eruption of the neighbouring Merapi volcano. In 1814, under the English Vice-Governor Thomas Stamford Raffles, the history of the rediscovery of this temple complex began. Borobudur has the shape of a square step pyramid with a base length of 113 metres. Four monumental staircases, aligned with the four points of the compass, lead to the top. Seen from above, the temple is a mandala, an aid to meditation, and as a whole, a stupa or three-dimensional model of the cosmos. The walls of the lower terraces are covered with bas-reliefs depicting the life of Gautama Buddha and his disciples, while the upper steps remain without pictorial decoration. Instead, numerous smaller stupas rise here, towered over by the main stupa, which culminates at a height of thirty-five metres. – 1990

The Mendut Temple (in Indonesian: Candi Mendut) is a Mahayana Buddhist temple located in the village of the same name, on the island of Java (Indonesia), in the Magelang district of Central Java. Built in the early 9th century, it forms part of the Borobudur Complex, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1991, along with the neighbouring temples of Borobudur and Pawon. – 1990

The bas-reliefs on the terrace walls of the Candi Mendut temple are, like those on the neighbouring Borobudur temple, of incomparable beauty. Here, too, all the faces radiate a serene happiness. – 1990

A young woman takes her ducks to a market near the world's largest Buddhist temple complex - 1990

This poultry seller carries a whole bunch of live chickens tied together by their feet to the market in Yogyakarta. Chickens and ducks are among the most important sources of meat in Indonesian cuisine, with its numerous spicy dishes made from rice, vegetables, fruit and meat. – 1990

At the bird market in Yogyakarta, a particularly picturesque city in Central Java, not far from the island's south coast. The song of caged birds can be heard from many Javanese homes. – 1990

This market vendor in Yogyakarta offers her customers several varieties of rice, eggs and bird cages. The importance of rice in Asia is well known. It is not only the staple food of the poor; in Indonesia, there is hardly a dish that does not include a bowl of rice on the table. – 1990

Women also carry loads at the market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

Sunda Kelapa is Jakarta's historic old harbour. Here, a young fisherman has laid out his caught fish to dry. – 1990

Fish for sale at the market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

You can even buy ornamental fish for your aquarium at the market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

Scene at the market in Yogyakarta – 1990

A young saleswoman peels maniok at the market in Yogyakarta – 1990

Scene at the market in Yogyakarta – 1990

Portrait of an old woman at the bird market in Yogyakarta – 1990

The market in Yogyakarta offers a rich variety of fruit, salad and vegetables. This is testament to the fertility of the volcanic soil, which is further enhanced by the hot and humid climate. The frequent ash showers from the active volcanoes are one of the best natural fertilisers available. – 1990

At the large market in Yogyakarta, this woman is selling coconuts and banana leaves. The leaves are an environmentally friendly form of packaging that is often used in Southeast Asian cuisine. They are ideal for wrapping, steaming, grilling or braising food and give dishes a delicate, sweet and exotic aroma. – 1990

The market in Yogyakarta offers a rich variety of fruit, salad and vegetables. This is testament to the fertility of the volcanic soil, which is further enhanced by the hot and humid climate. The frequent ash showers from the active volcanoes are one of the best natural fertilisers available. – 1990

Mother and her youngest child photographed in a high-altitude village in Tawangmangu, in the foothills of Mount Lawu, which rises between the towns of Surakarta and Madiun in central Java. The mountain peak is 3,265 metres above sea level. This young woman is wearing a beautiful batik blouse, a fabric widely used in Indonesia. - 1990

Girl from Tambak in Central Java – 1990

Sate or Tusuk Sate (Indonesian for brochettes) is an indispensable Indonesian street food consisting of small pieces of grilled meat (chicken, beef, lamb, fish) or tofu/tempeh on skewers. They are marinated, grilled over charcoal and usually served with a spicy peanut sauce (bumbu kacang) or soy sauce. – Surabaya – East Java – 1990

A becak (pronounced [bet?ak]) is a type of bicycle rickshaw that is particularly common on the island of Java in Indonesia. Yogyakarta – 1990

Near Majenang in Central Java, a woman returns to her home. The region is characterised by hills, rubber forests and a high population density. – 1990

Production of manioc flour – near Cilacap in Central Java – 1990

Maniok is an important gluten-free root vegetable that is widely cultivated in Java, Indonesia, and used in staple foods such as getuk (maniok porridge) and fermented tapai singkong. It is a versatile, high-calorie plant often referred to as the “tropical potato” and must be carefully peeled and cooked to remove natural toxins (linamarin). – Yogyacarta Market – 1990

Cloves are laid out to dry in the sun. – Kandangan near Pare, East Java – 1990

Rice fields are traditionally ploughed with oxen. The fields must be flat, and often ‘puddling’ (making them muddy) and harrowing are used to create a soft structure for planting. – Kandangan near Pare, East Java – 1990

Candi Kalasan (also known as Kalibening Temple) is the oldest Buddhist temple in the Yogyakarta region of Java, Indonesia. It was completed in 778 AD and was originally dedicated to the Buddhist goddess Tara. The building is characterised by an octagonal roof decorated with reliefs of the Tathagatas (Buddha figures) facing the four cardinal directions. A special feature is that the walls are covered with Vajralepa, a white protective resin that has preserved the fine carvings. - The temple is located about 13 km east of Yogyakarta. 1990

Candi Rara Jonggrang, better known as Prambanan Temple, is a magnificent 9th-century Hindu temple complex in Central Java, Indonesia. It is dedicated to the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva), is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is considered the largest Shiva temple in Indonesia. The name is closely linked to a local legend. - 1990

Near Surakarta, also known as Solo, a historic city in Central Java. Pottery is one of the oldest crafts in Indonesia, with important centres in East Java (such as Tulungagung, Blitar and Kediri) and near Yogyakarta (Kasongan village). The picture shows a man transporting large traditional clay pots on his bicycle, which is a common method of transporting goods in rural areas. - 1990

Near Surakarta, also known as Solo, a historic city in Central Java. Pottery is one of the oldest crafts in Indonesia, with important centres in East Java (such as Tulungagung, Blitar and Kediri) and near Yogyakarta (Kasongan village). The picture shows a man carrying large traditional clay pots on a shoulder yoke, which is a common method of transporting goods in rural areas. - 1990

In Sunda Kelapa harbour in the Indonesian capital Jakarta. These prahus, originally sailing vessels but now mostly motorboats with auxiliary sails, handle a large part of the shipping traffic between the islands of the Malay Archipelago and arrive here mainly from Sumatra and Kalimantan (Borneo). Around eighty prahus are always anchored in the busy harbour, loaded with spices among other goods. – 1990

Bow of a ship in Sunda Kelapa harbour in the Indonesian capital Jakarta. – 1990

In Sunda Kelapa harbour in the Indonesian capital Jakarta. These prahus, originally sailing vessels but now mostly motorboats with auxiliary sails, handle a large part of the shipping traffic between the islands of the Malay Archipelago and arrive here mainly from Sumatra and Kalimantan (Borneo). Around eighty prahus are always anchored in the busy harbour, loaded with spices among other goods. – 1990

Muara Baru is a district in Penjaringan, North Jakarta, best known for its important fishing port and fish market. It is a central hub for the Indonesian fishing industry, but faces significant environmental challenges due to its location below sea level. – 1990

Evening atmosphere in the bay of the port city of Ujung Pandang or Makassar, located on a southwestern spur of Sulawesi (Celebes), it was an important stop on the spice route. – 1990

The village of Bulukumba is located on the south-eastern side of the same spur of Sulawesi as Makassar (Ujung Pandang). At the mouth of the nearby river, which rises at the 2,870-metre-high Lompobatang, this small, well-protected harbour has been built for ships of modest tonnage. – Sulawesi – 1990

Fishermen bring their catch to the fish market in Ujung Padang (Makassar) – Sulawesi – 1990

Fishing boats between Ujung Pandang (Makassar) and Bantaeng – Sulawesi – 1990

At the fish market in Makassar (formerly Ujung Pandang). Fresh fish and seafood are grilled or prepared in the Makassar style, often with hot spices. – Sulawesi – 1990

Two fishermen carry their boat into the water. Fishing boats on Sulawesi are characterised by traditional wooden outrigger canoes (jukung), which are used for daily fishing. These boats are essential for the coastal economy and transport. – Near Ujung Pandang (Makassar) – 1990

Siesta on a becak in Ujung Pandang (Makassar) – Sulawesi – 1990

This cheerful girl was photographed in the streets of Ujung Pandang (Makassar). She wears a ribbon in the colours of Sulawesi on her hat – 1990.

A dock worker from Ujung Pandang (Makassar). The dockers' work is particularly strenuous in Indonesia's hot and humid climate. The island nation, which consists of a good dozen larger islands and a total of around thirteen thousand smaller ones, relies on a dense network of shipping connections, but now also has a well-developed airline network. – Sulawesi – 1990

Fishing boats in the late afternoon in the harbour of Ujung Pandang (Makassar) – Sulawesi – 1990

The Tamanroya salt flats are located in the Jeneponto district of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Jeneponto is considered the centre of national salt production and is known for its extensive salt fields (Indonesian: tambak garam), which are used for both economic and tourist purposes. – 1990

South Sulawesi is home to a number of Austronesian (Malay) tribes known as the Bugis, who are believed to have migrated from the Malay Peninsula around a thousand years ago. They have proven themselves to be skilled shipbuilders, whose reputation has spread throughout Indonesia and as far as Australia. Here in the village of Tanah Baru on the Gulf of Bone, the bulbous Prahu sailing boats are still built according to old Dutch shipbuilding plans, completely without metal or nails. The planks of the hulls are joined together with wooden pegs. The Bugis in South Sulawesi were converted to Islam by the Sultanate of Makassar, to which they remained loyal during and after the Dutch colonisation of their island. – 1990

The wooden planks for the ships are still cut by hand. - Tanah Beru – Sulawesi – 1990

The carefree life of these children in Tanah Beru in South Sulawesi is reflected in their faces – 1990

The region around Malino, a cool mountain resort at an altitude of 1,500 metres in South Sulawesi, is known for its picturesque terraced rice fields, green hills and waterfalls. In addition to rice cultivation, the region offers tea plantations, strawberry picking and great opportunities for hiking or mountain biking. – 1990

The rice fields in the Sinjai administrative district in South Sulawesi are part of a hilly coastal landscape that stretches along the east coast of the southern peninsula. These agricultural areas are characteristic of the region and an integral part of the local culture and economy in this part of South Sulawesi. – 1990

When the leaves begin to wilt, turmeric is harvested by digging up the root tubers. Two varieties of turmeric or yellow root are commercially available: the round variety, which comes from the thick main tuber, and the elongated variety, which comes from the branches of this rhizome. – Sulawesi – 1990

This plant grows up to two metres tall and produces golden yellow root tubers or rhizomes, which is how turmeric got its name, Indian saffron. The leaves are elongated to rounded. The inflorescence shoot bears an oval or cylindrical inflorescence that is one to fifteen centimetres long. – Sulawesi – 1990

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), also known as yellow root, is a medicinal and spice plant native to South Asia that is valued for its intense yellow colour and anti-inflammatory properties. The most important active ingredient is the polyphenol curcumin. – Sulawesi – 1990

Packaged turmeric roots for sale at the market in the village of Bontosunggu on Sulawesi. The pigment curcumin, or turmeric yellow, contained in the tubers is an important component of curry powder, which is a mixture of various flavourings rather than a spice in its own right. Other ingredients include ground pepper pods (Indian pepper), cardamom, coriander and various other aromatic substances. The proportion of each spice varies from region to region; there are also different curry mixtures depending on the dish. In India, turmeric yellow is also used to dye textiles. And various Polynesian tribes, for example on the Marquesas Islands and Wallis, use it to dye their hair. – 1990

This is probably the image that the Spice Islands presented to the first European sailors... Tidore is the southern sister island of Ternate, located west of the large Moluccan island of Halmahera. The beach, towered over by coconut palms, is littered with blackish basalt debris, evidence of the volcanic origin of most of these islands. – 1990

This is probably the view that the Spice Islands offered the first European sailors... - Togolo Beach on the island of Tidore – Moluccas – 1990

This is probably the view that the Spice Islands offered the first European sailors... – Latuhalat Beach – Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

This is probably the view that the Spice Islands offered the first European sailors... – Waitomu – Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

A fisherman returns from fishing in Ambon Bay. In the background, the fishing village on stilts. – Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Fishing village in Ambon Bay. The houses stand on stilts in the water. – Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Walkway to a fishing village on the island of Tidore – Moluccas – 1990

View from Ternate, an island in the North Moluccas, of the 3 km wide, forested, conical stratovolcano Hiri, which rises steeply from the sea (630 m) – Moluccas – 1990

Fishing boat on the southern beach of Tidore, a circular volcanic island in the North Moluccas, historically known as an important spice island. – 1990

On the island of Ternate in the North Moluccas, a fisherman pulls his boat onto Sulamadaha beach. This island is historically known as one of the most important ‘spice islands’ and was once the world's only centre for clove cultivation. – 1990

Here is the fisherman's catch from the previous picture. These are fresh soldierfish (genus Myripristis). They are known for their bright red colour and very large eyes. They are often found in Asian fish markets. – Sulamadaha – Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

This girl sells dried fish at the market in Banda Neira – Maluku – 1990

A boat carrying vegetables and fruit from the large island of Halmahera arrives at the port of Ternate. In the background on the right is the small island of Maitara and on the left is the island of Tidore, dominated by the 1,730-metre-high Keimatubu volcano. - Moluccas – 1990

The canoes are not only used for fishing, but also as a means of transport for firewood. – Banda Islands – Moluccas – 1990

On the Banda Islands, fishermen and their traditional boats are a common sight. While the islands were historically famous as the ‘spice islands’ for nutmeg, fishing is now one of the most important sources of livelihood for the locals, alongside tourism. – Moluccas – 1990

Small sailing boats are still used today in the Malay Archipelago for transport between islands. However, these vessels, which could date back to the days of the spice route, are increasingly being replaced by motor cutters or sailboats with auxiliary engines, which are faster and more reliable, especially on longer journeys. - Moluccas – 1990

Nutmeg originates from the Banda Islands and the northern Moluccas (the so-called ‘Spice Islands’) in what is now Indonesia. Botanically speaking, nutmeg is not a nut, but the seed of the peach-like fruit of the nutmeg tree. – 1990

A branch laden with fruit from a nutmeg tree on one of the Banda Islands in the Moluccas archipelago, home to this tree species belonging to the magnolia family. The nutmeg tree subsequently spread to Celebes (Sulawesi), Java, Sumatra, New Guinea, Malaysia (Penang Island and the Malacca region), Singapore, Bengal, the Antilles and Brazil. - Moluccas - 1990

Freshly opened nutmeg fruits. The flesh of these apricot-like fruits surrounds the large seed, the nutmeg. The striking red aril or seed coat is dried and sold as mace or mazis. – Banda Neira – Moluccas – 1990

Harvesting nutmeg is a multi-stage process that requires patience, as the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans) only yields significant crops after around 8 to 10 years. The fruits are ripe when the yellow, peach-like shell bursts open, revealing the red seed coat (mace). Harvesting is possible throughout the year, with the main season often falling during the rainy season. The fruits are either picked from the tree using long bamboo poles (with a small basket attached to the end, called a gaigai) or collected from the ground once they have fallen. – Banda – Moluccas – 1990

The nutmegs are either picked from the tree using long bamboo poles (with a small basket attached to the end, called a gaigai) or collected from the ground once they have fallen. – Banda – Moluccas – 1990

Still life with a branch bearing fruit and open nutmeg fruits, as well as a collection basket and a bamboo picking drum called a gaigai. This is open on one side and equipped with two gripping teeth. The fruit is stripped off and falls into the cone-shaped collection drum. On Banda Besar, as on the other Moluccan islands, the harvest takes place twice a year, in June and October. - 1990

A handful of nutmegs – Banda Neira – Moluccas – 1990

Nutmegs in their red seed coat, the mace – Banda Neira – Moluccas – 1990

Mazis laid out to dry in the sun exude a distinctive scent. When placed in water, the strands immediately swell again. This soaked mazis is used to extract an essential oil with a pungent, spicy and rather bitter aroma, which is used in pharmaceuticals. – Banda Neira – Moluccas – 1990

The kernels (in their hard shells) are dried in the sun or in drying houses for several weeks until the inner kernel (the actual nutmeg) rattles in the shell when shaken. The hard shell is carefully cracked open shortly before export or further processing to expose the nutmeg. – Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

Traditionally, whole nutmegs are often treated with lime (lime milk/calcium oxide) after harvesting to protect them from insect infestation, mould and fungi during the long drying process. This lime coating is whitish, non-toxic and is usually washed off before use or resale. – Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Muscat nuts ready for sale are packed into sacks and prepared for export. – Banda Neira – Moluccas – 1990

Whole nutmegs for export are usually packed in jute bags (double bags) in units of 25 kg to 50 kg. These provide good ventilation, which reduces the risk of mould. A common export grade is ABCD (mixture of different sizes). When stored correctly in cool, dry containers, the shelf life for export is approximately 18 to 24 months. – Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

Nutmegs are the most important agricultural resource of the Banda Islands, but they are also a significant crop on Ternate, Tidore and other Moluccan islands. After removing the seed coat, the nuts are laid out to dry. When dried, the seed – the nutmeg as it is sold – can be heard rattling in the shell when shaken. The shell is then broken open with a wooden hammer. The nutmeg itself is egg-shaped, two to two and a half centimetres long, grey-brown in colour and can be grated or scraped with a suitable instrument. – 1990

On the Moluccan island of Ternate, women sort peeled nutmegs according to size and quality. These are exported in sacks, as seen in the background. The nutmegs are often rolled in lime or dipped in a lime solution beforehand. This process is intended to protect them from pest infestation. – 1990

When dried nuts are shaken, you can hear the seed – the nutmeg – rattling inside the shell. The shell is broken open with a wooden hammer. The nutmeg itself is egg-shaped, two to two and a half centimetres long, grey-brown in colour and can be grated or scraped with a suitable instrument. – Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

The small farmers of Ternate bring their harvest of dried and shelled nutmegs to the island's capital of the same name to sell to buyers. The nuts are weighed using simple running scales. The buyer acts as an intermediary between the export companies and the small producers. Unfortunately, the proceeds are not always commensurate with the effort involved. – 1990

The colourful market in Ternate offers fruit, vegetables and, of course, spices such as chilli peppers. – Moluccas – 1990

The colourful market in Ternate sells fruit, vegetables and, of course, spices such as chillies or ginger. – Moluccas – 1990

This girl in the market in Ambon is selling a packaged speciality – Moluccas – 1990

Dried fish is among the items on offer at the market in Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

The colourful market in Ternate sells fruit, vegetables and, of course, spices such as chillies or ginger. – Moluccas – 1990

In the Moluccas, carrying baskets on the head is a traditional and widespread method of transporting goods, crops or shopping. – Ambon – 1990

In the Moluccas, coconuts are traditionally transported using a carrying pole (a yoke, often called a pikulan locally). – Tidore – 1990

Coconut palm on Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

Selling coconuts at the market in Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

The colourful market in Ternate offers fruit, vegetables and, of course, spices such as chilli peppers. – Moluccas – 1990

The colourful market in Tidore offers fruit, vegetables and, of course, spices such as chilli peppers. – Moluccas – 1990

Pepper pods on sale at the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Fresh chilli peppers at the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Chilli peppers, garlic, onions, limes, tomatoes – Market in Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

The picture shows an elderly man on the island of Ambon wearing a traditional headdress known as a peci, songkok or kopiah. This type of cylindrical cap is commonly worn in Muslim cultures and is often elaborately embroidered. – Moluccas – 1990

This woman at the market in Ternate is selling a special fruit: Malay apples (scientific name: Syzygium malaccense), also known as water apples, rose apples or pomarrosa. They are rich in pectin and vitamins A, B3 and C. They are also low in calories and fat. The fruit grows on trees that can reach heights of up to 15 metres and are particularly common in tropical regions such as South America, Asia and the Caribbean. – Moluccas – 1990

Chilli peppers, onions, ginger, turmeric, lemon verbena – Ambon market – Moluccas – 1990

At the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), also known as yellow root, is a spice originating from South Asia that is valued for its intense yellow colour and the active ingredient curcumin. In modern nutrition and naturopathy, it is considered a ‘superfood’ due to its anti-inflammatory and digestive properties. – At the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Cinnamon is one of the oldest spices in the world and is obtained from the dried bark of cinnamon trees (genus Cinnamomum). It is particularly valued in cooking and natural medicine for its warm, sweet, woody aroma and its health-promoting properties. – Market in Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

Cinnamon is one of the oldest spices in the world and is obtained from the dried bark of cinnamon trees (genus Cinnamomum). It is particularly valued in cooking and natural medicine for its warm, sweet, woody aroma and its health-promoting properties. – Market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Spice shop at the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Local woman on Lontar, also known as Banda Besar, the largest island of the Banda Islands in the Indonesian province of Maluku. The island is volcanic in origin, hilly (up to 536 m) and located in the central Banda Sea. – 1990

Curious children watch from their window – Banda – Moluccas – 1990

Portrait of a little girl on Banda – Moluccas – 1990

Boys in the village of Eri on the Moluccan island of Ambon, Indonesia. The village lies opposite Ambon Bay on the Timor Peninsula. They have rushed over from swimming to watch the photographer at work. Indonesians like to have their photographs taken, which is not the case with all peoples of the Far East. – 1990

This girl is also interested in the photographer's work – Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

What is happening in this world? Child in Castela on the island of Ternate – (see New Year's card 2022) – Moluccas – 1990

Portrait of a local woman on the island of Ternate – Moluccas – 1990

Inflorescence of a clove tree on the Moluccan island of Ternate. The undivided leaves of this evergreen tree from the myrtle family, reminiscent of laurel, are opposite and up to ten centimetres long. They are covered with indentations or tissue cavities that contain a pleasantly scented essential oil. The actual clove is the flower bud. The small, hermaphroditic flowers form round berries two to three centimetres in diameter, which turn brownish-purple when ripe and contain one to two seeds. – Moluccas – 1990

Shortly before flowering, the buds or cloves are ready for harvesting. A five-year-old clove tree is about six to eight metres tall and strong enough for its first “harvest”. After picking the flower buds, the tree is left to rest for eighteen to twenty-four months before the next harvest. This cycle can be maintained until the tree dies or is felled. – Moluccas – 1990

A woman on the island of Ternate picking cloves. The buds are carefully removed one by one and then laid out to dry. This work is usually done in family businesses. Each week's harvest, a few kilos of dried cloves, is then delivered to the buyer in the city of Ternate, who pays for the goods in cash. However, as with most spices, the purchase price is modest. – Moluccas – 1990

On Ternate, freshly picked clove buds are immediately laid out on cloths or mats to dry. In the evening, they are taken indoors and then laid out in the sun again the next day. This drying process takes one to two weeks. In bad weather, the cloves can also be carefully dried over a small fire. They are then ready for sale. – Moluccas – 1990

Dried cloves rightly bear their French name “clou de girofle” (clove nail). The head of the nail, which is three to four millimetres in diameter and a beautiful dark brown colour, consists of tightly packed petals, while the stem, formed from the calyx, is ten to twelve millimetres long. During drying, cloves lose almost half their weight. The yield of a tree is approximately ten kilograms, rarely more. – Moluccas – 1990

Scene at the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Passing the time with a game of draughts at the market in Ambon – Moluccas – 1990

Young woman with firewood - Ambon - Moluccas - 1990

In the Moluccas, a carrying pole (a yoke, often called a pikulan locally) is a traditional and widely used method of transporting goods, crops or purchases. – Lontar Island, also known as Banda Besar – Moluccas – 1990

Numerous fortifications built by the Portuguese and later by the Dutch can be found in the Moluccas archipelago, especially on the islands of Ternate and Banda (for example, the Belgica and Nassau forts). They bear witness to the bitter battles fought between the representatives of the two trading nations and soon also against the English. On the portal of Fort Nieuw Victoria, on the Timor peninsula in Ambon, the coat of arms of Amsterdam can be seen on the left. Under the gable crowned by a sailor is the name of the portal and below it the date of construction, 1775. At the bottom right is a depiction of three fish, above which is a coat of arms with four lions. – Ambon – 1990

Fort Belgica (Indonesian: Benteng Belgica) is a historic 17th-century fort on the island of Banda Neira in the Moluccas, Indonesia. Built in 1611 by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the fort was primarily used to protect the monopoly on the valuable nutmeg trade. – 1990

The island of Ternate is dominated by Gunung Gamalama, or Gamalama Volcano, which rises more than 1,700 metres above sea level. It is considered one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes. The lava flow in the foreground is from an eruption in 1936 – Photo from 1990

The Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Mosque, often referred to as the ‘Blue Mosque’, is the state mosque of Selangor in Shah Alam, Malaysia. It is considered one of the largest mosques in Southeast Asia, known for its striking blue dome and four tall minarets. Completed in 1988, the building is an important Islamic landmark and cultural centre. - Malaysia - 1990

The Kek Lok Si (Temple of Supreme Bliss) in Air Itam near George Town on Penang is the largest Buddhist temple in Malaysia and one of the most important shrines in Southeast Asia. The sprawling complex extends over several levels on a hill and captivates visitors with its unique blend of Chinese, Thai and Burmese architecture. - Malaysia - 1990

Side entrance to Christ Church in Malacca, Malaysia. The city was once known as the ‘world's largest port’. Completed in 1753, the church is a beautiful example of Dutch sacred architecture and was inaugurated to mark the centenary of the colonisation of the country. Above the altar is a magnificent Last Supper frieze made of colourful glazed tiles. The roof beams were each made from a single tree trunk. Founded in 1403 by Parameswara, the prince of Sumatra, the city of Malacca is located at a river mouth that forms a safe harbour. In 1511, the Portuguese conquered the city and made it an important stop on the spice route. In 1641, they were driven out by the Dutch, who now controlled the entire region. The last colonists to arrive were the English, who completed their conquest of the Malay Peninsula in 1824. – 1990

Malacca is a historic city in Malaysia that has been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and is known for its Portuguese, Dutch and British colonial heritage. It is a popular tourist destination due to its unique architecture, diverse temples, the Melaka River and its gastronomy. The picture shows an old, weathered building with a striking wooden spiral staircase on the outside. – 1990

On the road from the airport to the Malaysian capital Kuala Lumpur stands the Chinese temple Thean Hou, which combines stylish decorative elements with modern architecture. In the courtyard, a worshipper lights incense sticks for his ancestors. – 1990

Campbell Street (Lebuh Campbell) in George Town, Penang, Malaysia, is a historic street in the heart of the city's UNESCO World Heritage site, famous for traditional shophouses, textile shops, and heritage eateries like the renowned Hameediyah Restaurant. It is a bustling area located near Kapitan Keling Mosque and Penang Road. - 1990

Penang, particularly George Town, is home to some of Southeast Asia's most magnificent Hokkien temples and clan houses (kongsis). These structures were built by immigrants from Fujian Province (Hokkien) and still serve as religious centres and symbols of family cohesion today. – 1990

Bicycle taxis, often known in Malaysia as colourful ‘trishaws’, are a popular traditional means of transport for tourists, especially in historic cities such as Malacca and George Town (Penang). Today, they mostly serve as a decorative attraction for sightseeing tours, whereas in the past they functioned as classic city taxis. – 1990

Papaya seller on King Street (Malay: Lebuh King), one of the most historically significant streets in the heart of George Town, the capital of the Malaysian island of Penang. It is located within the UNESCO World Heritage Centre and reflects the city's multicultural history. – 1990

When the ginger leaves turn yellow and wilt, it is time to harvest. Ginger plantations are usually established on freshly cleared jungle soil. Slash-and-burn farming is often practised, as the ash acts as a fertiliser and increases the initial yield. – Malaysia – 1990

Ginger is generally harvested during the tropical winter. The planters dig up the shrubs with pitchforks, taking care not to damage the root tubers. The yield per hectare varies considerably from region to region: while it can be as high as eight tonnes in India, in Jamaica it is only about half that amount. – Malaysia – 1990

Freshly harvested ginger, as sold at the market in Georgetown (now Pinang), the capital of the Malaysian island of Penang (Pulau Pinang). Ginger is also sold dried. During drying, the tubers lose four-fifths of their weight. The pungent, intense flavour of ginger is not to everyone's taste. The spice contains a yellowish essence of essential oils and resins that can be extracted through distillation. – Malaysia – 1990

Street scene in Chinatown, Singapore. This district is a lively historic neighbourhood offering a unique blend of traditional Chinese culture, impressive temples and first-class cuisine. – Singapore – 1990

The Sri Mariamman Temple is the oldest Hindu temple in Singapore and an important national monument. It was founded in 1827 by Naraina Pillai and is located in the heart of Chinatown. The temple is dedicated to the goddess Mariamman, who is revered in popular belief as the bringer of rain and healer of diseases. The most striking part of the temple is the five-storey entrance tower (gopuram), which is decorated with colourful sculptures of gods, mythological creatures and animals. – Singapore – 1990

Bow of a Chinese junk in Singapore Harbour. During the Spice Route era, all shipping traffic between the Far East and the Middle East and Europe passed through this strategically located Southeast Asian harbour. Today, the strait of the same name is one of the busiest shipping routes in the world, alongside the English Channel. – 1990

Hindu rituals are deeply rooted in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Everyday life is marked by ritual purification and temple visits, while the culture is closely linked to the Ramayana epic. – 1990

Hindu rites in Colombo, Sri Lanka, are deeply rooted. It is a religious ceremony in which followers pour water over a person who is decorated with flowers as part of a ritual. – 1990

This scene shows street vendors selling shoes in Colombo, Sri Lanka, a trade that has existed in the capital for centuries. - 1990

The image of women ‘chatting’ in the streets of Colombo, Sri Lanka's bustling metropolis, is an integral part of everyday city life. Especially in busy neighbourhoods such as Pettah or at the markets of Colombo, you will encounter women in colourful saris or shalwar kameez exchanging news while shopping or standing in front of their homes. – 1990

Sleeping man in front of the ancient Kathiresan temple, dedicated to the god of war Murugan. – Colombo – 1990

There are several places in Colombo where women practise the art of batik or offer workshops. There are traditional businesses run by women that often support local craftswomen. – 1990

The picture shows a street scene in Colombo, on Wolfendhal Street in Pettah in 1990. The façade of the damaged Abdeen building can be seen. On the ground floor are small shops such as Lanka Stores. A typical tuk-tuk can be seen on the street. Next to the shops is the Christian St. Paul's Chapel. - 1990

Relief on the Wolvendaal Church in Colombo, Sri Lanka, which is an important historical landmark from the Dutch colonial period (built 1749-1757). It is located in the Pettah district and is one of the best-preserved Dutch Reformation buildings in the region, known for its architecture and surrounding neighbourhood. This is the coat of arms of the van Rhee family, which is found on one of the gravestones or epitaphs inside the church. It belongs to Thomas van Rhee, who was the Dutch governor of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) from 1692 to 1697. – Photo 1990

This image shows a historical stone bas-relief located on a wall of the famous Sri Dalada Maligawa, also known as the Temple of the Sacred Tooth in Kandy, Sri Lanka. The relief depicts a magnificently decorated elephant with a rider (mahout) on its back. The Temple of the Tooth is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in the world and houses a relic revered as the left canine tooth of the historical Buddha. – 1990

The image shows a stone sculpture of the god Ganesha, located on the façade of the Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara Temple in Sri Lanka. It is an important Buddhist temple that commemorates Buddha's historic visit to the island. It is considered one of the 16 most important shrines (Solosmasthana) and is known for its impressive architecture, murals and the annual Duruthu Perahera procession. – 1990

Kelaniya Temple is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Sri Lanka, as Buddhists believe that the Buddha sanctified the place during his third visit to the island. The stone carvings are an example of how stories from the Ramayana are linked to local Buddhist tradition. The depiction shows the coronation of Vibhishana as king of Lanka. His wife Sarama sits to his left. Lakshmana stands to his right, placing the crown on Vibhishana's head. Lakshmana is often depicted with a bow, which can also be seen here. – 1990

Stone sculpture of the Hindu god Ganesha, located on the exterior façade of the Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara Temple in Sri Lanka. Ganesha is the deity of wisdom, good fortune and new beginnings, who removes obstacles and is depicted here sitting on his vahana (mount), the rat. Below the Ganesha niche are friezes depicting dwarf figures (ganas) and a row of elephants. - 1990

Artísticos trabajos de cantería en el Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara (también conocido como templo Kelaniya), uno de los lugares budistas más importantes de Sri Lanka. Las paredes exteriores del edificio principal (Viharage) están decoradas con tres frisos distintivos, cada uno con su propio significado simbólico: Friso superior: muestra hamsas (cisnes o gansos), que simbolizan la pureza y la discernimiento. Friso central: muestra ganas (enanos o figuras muragal), representados en diversas poses juguetonas y acrobáticas. Friso inferior: consiste en una procesión de elefantes (gajas), que encarnan la fuerza y la constancia. – 1990

Sunset on the beach in Colombo, Sri Lanka – 1990

Natural spectacle on the beach near Colombo, Sri Lanka – 1990

The picture shows an Asian elephant accompanied by two people, known as mahouts. One of the mahouts is sitting on the elephant's back, while the other is walking alongside the animal on a road. Mahouts form a lifelong, close bond with their elephants and are responsible for their care, feeding and training. These working elephants are often used to transport heavy loads, in forestry or in cultural processions. – Kandy region, Sri Lanka – 1990

Traditional ox cart in Sri Lanka, used to transport agricultural goods. Such carts were a very common means of transport in rural areas. The cart is pulled by two zebus (humped cattle), which are known for their endurance and adaptability to hot climates. – 1990

Shop sign in Kandy, Sri Lanka, bearing the inscription “Golden Tea Store”, advertising various agricultural products such as tea, coffee, cocoa and spices. The sign features text in three languages: Sinhala, Tamil and English. This is typical of the linguistic diversity in Sri Lanka. – 1990

An elderly woman in traditional dress, photographed at the market in Kandy – 1990

Buddhist monks in front of a white stupa (also called a dagoba) outside the grounds of the Temple of the Tooth (Sri Dalada Maligawa) in Kandy, which is considered one of the holiest places in Buddhism because it houses a relic of Buddha's tooth. – 1990

A monk with a parasol walks along the outer wall of Sri Dalada Maligawa, also known as the Temple of the Tooth. – Kandy, Sri Lanka – 1990

Stupa (also called dagoba) on the grounds of the Temple of the Tooth (Sri Dalada Maligawa) in Kandy. – 1990

A small grocery shop known as ‘J.T. Traders’ in Kandy. Various staple foods such as grains, legumes and sugar are sold here, displayed in large sacks in front of the shop. The salespeople prepare the goods for customers or weigh them on traditional scales. Advertising posters for products such as ‘Nestomalt’ are displayed on the wall. – 1990

At the market in Kandy, a man dressed in traditional clothing offers small fruits for sale. At first glance, the fruits resemble tomatoes, but they are actually Indian jujubes, also known as ‘Sri Lankan apples’ or simply ‘ber’. They taste crisp and sweet like apples and are eaten fresh or dried. – 1990

A man sells moringa pods at the market in Kandy. These long, green pods come from the horseradish tree (Moringa oleifera) and are cultivated as a vegetable. They are rich in vitamins and minerals. – Sri Lanka – 1990

As a liana-like climbing orchid, vanilla depends on a supporting tree. With its adventitious tendrils, it anchors itself to the trunk and grows up to ten metres high. The leaves are elongated to ovate, thick and fleshy, and rich green in colour. On plantations, the climbing plants are allowed to grow up light-wood species and are cut back to a certain height each year. They can live for up to fifty years. – Sri Lanka – 1990

A bundle of dried vanilla pods, with a fresh, not yet fully grown fruit above for comparison. The cylindrical capsule fruits, which can grow up to twenty-five centimetres long, change colour from yellow to brown as they ripen. After harvesting, the pods are left to ferment in containers, alternating between exposure to sunlight and sealing. During this process, they turn blackish in colour and the glycoside in the skin is broken down into fructose and vanillin. – Sri Lanka – 1990

Flowering cinnamon tree in Sri Lanka. Various environmental factors contribute to the thriving growth of this spice tree. Firstly, the high average temperature of twenty-five to thirty degrees, then annual rainfall of at least two thousand millimetres and finally sandy soils with a high quartz content. The plantations, which do not require any special care, are laid out as dense nurseries. The farmers are content with occasional hoeing, weeding and fertilising with natural substances such as manure or copra residues. However, the tree must be pruned regularly to prevent it from growing too tall. The cinnamon tree then develops numerous root-based side shoots and takes on a shrub-like form. The cinnamon tree is propagated by seeds, cuttings and offshoots. – 1990

In Ella, in the Badulla district of Sri Lanka, tea plantations stretch across dozens of square kilometres. Tea is one of the country's most important exports. Its cultivation was introduced by the British, who ruled the island between 1782 and 1948. Ceylon tea is rightly famous worldwide. The fresh shoots are harvested in the morning before the intense heat of the day sets in. Nevertheless, the work is hard and is mainly done by Tamil women. Most Tamils in Sri Lanka come from southern India; their ancestors were brought to the island by the British to establish the tea plantations. - 1990

The Tamil women from Ella return to the village after the tea harvest, their hats (back baskets) worn with headbands filled to the brim. During the harvest, the women place the long pole horizontally on the tea bush as a measuring stick: the young shoots and leaves that protrude above it are picked. - 1990

A spice shop in the holy city of Kandy in the mountainous highlands of Sri Lanka. In addition to other foodstuffs, the shopkeeper stocks a remarkable variety of spices – formerly known as “spezereien”. Fortunately, these picturesque shops, where you are greeted with a friendly smile, have not yet been displaced by supermarkets. - 1990

Terraced rice fields in the mountainous district of Nuwara Eliya in central Sri Lanka. They are artificially irrigated, and in some of them the fresh light green of the young rice plants is visible. These plants are then pricked out by hand and planted in the remaining fields, where the rice grows to harvest maturity. – 1990

The rice fields of Kotmale in the Central Province of Sri Lanka are considered some of the most picturesque and historically significant in the country. They are nestled in a mountainous region that has traditionally been farmed in such a way that rainfall in the valleys could be optimally utilised for rice cultivation. – 1990

Ploughing a flooded rice field for planting the pricked seedlings. In the foreground, a second field has already been cultivated. - Sri Lanka – 1990

Near the Sinhalese town of Kegalle between Colombo and Kandy in Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks follow some believers who have invited them to eat. The monks must have eaten their last meal of the day before around 11 a.m. Breakfast is then served at dawn. - 1990

Historical street scene in Matara, Sri Lanka, from 1990. In the foreground, a Buddhist monk in traditional orange robes walks with a parasol. The vehicle pictured is a Morris Minor, a British small car produced between 1948 and 1971.

A Buddhist monk, recognisable by his traditional orange robe, walking along a street. He is also carrying a yellow shoulder bag and a black umbrella. The clothing is typical of Theravada Buddhism, which is mainly practised in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. – Matara – 1990

Street scene in Negombo, north of Colombo. In villages and sometimes even in larger towns in Sri Lanka, ox carts were long the preferred means of transport, used to carry both people and goods. – 1990

Fish market in Matara, Sri Lanka. The scene is typical of fish markets on the south-west coast of the country, where fishermen sell their daily catch directly at the harbour or on the beach. – 1990

The building in the picture is Mipura Hall, the former town hall of Negombo. It is considered one of the most historically significant places in the city and is an important testament to its colonial past. The building is located directly on Lellama, Negombo's large fish market. Fish is traditionally laid out to dry in the sun on the square in front of it, a process that is central to the local economy. – 1990

At the large fish market in Negombo, known as Lellama, a vendor offers fresh fish for sale. – 1990

A rice table, as served for two people at lunchtime in restaurants on the Sri Lankan coast. The traditional meal consists of nine dishes: white rice at the top left, fried rice below it, and next to it, from top to bottom, bowls of papad bread, vegetable soup and boiled tuna in curry sauce, followed by beetroot and green mokunuwan leaves mixed with coconut flakes. The two bowls on the right contain aubergines and yellow lentils. - 1990

Mural from the Kathaluwa Poorwarama Viharaya in Koggala, Sri Lanka. The temple is known for its detailed murals, which feature a mixture of religious themes and influences from the British colonial period. Although at first glance the image may be reminiscent of ancient Egyptian art (such as the famous scenes of Tutankhamun and Anjesenamón on grave goods), it differs significantly in style, clothing and the script shown. – 1990

Koggala Beach in Sri Lanka. This stretch of coastline is located in the southern province of the country, about 120 km south of the capital Colombo and not far from the historic city of Galle. The striking rocks in the water are typical of this stretch of coastline between Unawatuna and Weligama. – 1990

Evening scene on Weligama Beach in the Galle district on the south coast of Sri Lanka. A cormorant dives for prey while stilt fishermen fish from their high seats rammed into the seabed. This method is an unusual form of fishing that originated during the Second World War. Balancing on this frame, the fishermen often hold a fishing rod in one hand for hours while storing their catch in a bag attached to their waist. The poles are often passed down from generation to generation within families. – 1990

A fisherman sits on a wooden structure, known as a ‘petta’, which is anchored to the seabed. He waits patiently there for hours on his stilts until the fish bite. – 1990

Dalawella Beach in the south of the country. The region is known for its wide sandy beaches, coconut groves and excellent conditions for travellers. – 1990

This building is known as Ernest Cottage (as indicated by the inscription on the gable). It is located in the Magalle district of Galle, in southern Sri Lanka. According to the inscription, the house was built in 1907 (2450 B.E. in the Buddhist calendar). It is considered a typical example of a late 19th or early 20th century bourgeois residence in the coastal region of Sri Lanka. – 1990

Portal of one of the two Dutch fortresses in Matara, the port city next to the southern tip of the island of Sri Lanka. The emblem of the Dutch East India Company crowns the gable of this gate, built in 1703, of the Redoute van Eck. Matara was a well-known port for Arab sailors before it was taken over by the Dutch and developed into an important base on the spice route. - 1990

Painted Chinese porcelain plate from the 18th century, diameter 40 centimetres. The seal of the Dutch East India Company can be seen in the centre. This magnificent piece is kept in the museum in the Sri Lankan capital Colombo. - 1990

An elderly man walking through the streets of Galle with an umbrella and a walking stick. - 1990

Two women dressed in traditional saris walking down a street in Galle. The sari is a traditional wrap-around garment, often made of cotton or silk and worn in a variety of colours and patterns. – 1990

A worker in Sri Lanka produces cinnamon sticks using traditional methods. This process involves peeling the bark from the branches of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum verum). Cinnamon is the inner bark of this tree. First, the outer, rough bark is scraped off the branch. The remaining bark is rubbed with a brass rod to separate it from the wood. Then, a special knife is used to peel off the thin inner bark layer in long strips. These pieces of bark are intertwined and dried, causing them to roll up into the familiar cinnamon sticks. Sri Lanka is known worldwide for its high-quality Ceylon cinnamon, also known as ‘true cinnamon’. Production is traditionally often in the hands of the Salagama caste. - 1990

A young man from Boossa near Galle carries a large bundle of cinnamon sticks. Sri Lanka is known worldwide for producing high-quality ‘real’ Ceylon cinnamon and covers about 90% of global demand. Unlike the more common cassia cinnamon, Ceylon cinnamon is considered finer, sweeter and contains significantly less coumarin, making it safer for consumption. For many families in rural areas of Sri Lanka, cinnamon cultivation is their primary source of livelihood. – 1990

A large bundle of cinnamon sticks, which are obtained from the dried inner bark of cinnamon trees. Cinnamon is used worldwide as a spice in cooking, baking and beverages. The picture shows the traditional harvesting and storage in bundles, as is customary in growing regions in Sri Lanka. – 1990

A wooden boat on the Hamilton Canal (often simply referred to as the Dutch Canal) in Negombo, Sri Lanka. It was originally developed by the Dutch in the 17th century (and later by the British) to transport cinnamon and other spices. It connects Colombo with the Negombo Lagoon. The canal runs directly through dense mangrove and coconut groves, making it a popular route for boat trips. – 1990

In der Nähe von Kosgoda befindet sich diese Dagoba mit der typischen Glockenform. - 1990

A traditional toddy tapper at work, a scene that is particularly typical of Sri Lanka. Toddy tappers climb palm trees to extract the sap from the inflorescences of coconut or palmyrapalm trees. To avoid having to climb up and down each tree individually, the treetops are often connected by ropes, along which the tappers balance from tree to tree at dizzying heights. The sap extracted is called ‘toddy’. It is a milky drink that ferments naturally, turning into an alcoholic palm wine. – Induruwa – 1990

A palm grove near the village of Induruwa on the south-west coast of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Like a circus acrobat, a man walks along the ropes stretched at the height of the tree tops, linking around a hundred palm trees together. Twice a day, he harvests the milky, sugary palm sap, which is extracted through incisions in the fresh flower shoots and, when fermented, produces the much sought-after toddy or palm wine. If the palm wine and rice are fermented again, distillation yields the strong arrack or palm spirit, which is particularly popular among the Sinhalese. – 1990

The beach at Balapitiya is characterised by fine sand, coconut palms and distinctive rock formations in the water. - 1990

A group of fishermen on the coast of Galle, in southern Sri Lanka, who traditionally work together to pull a large net out of the water that has been set out at sea from a boat. This form of small-scale fishing has been practised for generations and is often an important part of the local identity and economy in coastal villages. – 1990

A fisherman from the Negombo area on the west coast of Sri Lanka – 1990

Traditional Sri Lankan dugout sailing boats known as oruwa. These iconic boats can be found on the beach at Negombo, a town on the west coast of Sri Lanka. An oruwa is essentially a seaworthy dugout boat with a distinctive outrigger that provides stability. Traditionally, these boats are used by local fishermen for catching fish and crabs in the lagoons (such as Negombo Lagoon) as well as on the open sea. – 1990

On Negombo beach, thirty kilometres north of the Sri Lankan capital Colombo, fishermen are launching one of their outrigger boats with its characteristic rectangular sail. Early in the morning, they set out in droves for the fishing grounds in the open sea. Fish plays an important role in Ceylonese cuisine. Yet despite the abundance of tropical nature, life in these fishing villages is austere. – 1990

A small fishing boat lying on the beach on the west coast of Sri Lanka, secured in the sand by an anchor. – 1990

The Kappad Reef on the Malabar Coast, four kilometres north of Calicut (now Kozhikode). It was here that Vasco da Gama became the first Portuguese man to set foot on Indian soil on 20 May 1498. In the years that followed, in their quest for spices and other treasures of the Orient, the Portuguese would extend their conquests as far as Indonesia and also gain a foothold in southern China. – 1990

The Malabar Coast at Vizhinjam Beach, twenty kilometres south of Trivandrum, the capital of the south-western Indian state of Kerala. On the beach, overlooked by a lighthouse, fishermen lay out their nets to dry. – 1990

These traditional wooden boats are typical of the coastal region around Vizhinjam Beach and are used for fishing in the Arabian Sea. On the beach, the fishermen lay out their long nets to dry. – 1990

In a quarry near Vizhinjam, close to Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram), the hard work is done using muscle power. – Kerala – 1990

A zebu pulls a traditional cart (also known as a bullock cart), heavily laden with coir rope. At that time, such carts were an essential means of transport for agricultural produce and goods. – Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) – 1990

This man is carrying a huge load of coconut fibre on his head. This scene is typical of rural areas in South Asia, particularly in India or Sri Lanka. The fibrous material is obtained from the outer husk of coconuts. Coconut fibre is a versatile natural product. It is used to make ropes, mats, brushes and even for soil improvement in agriculture. – Kerala – 1990

A sturdy wooden cart with large, iron-rimmed spoked wheels, drawn by two white oxen. It is heavily laden with numerous jute sacks, which probably contain grain, rice or other agricultural produce. – Kollam, near Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) – 1990

An impressive image that illustrates an extraordinary feat of physical strength. This man is balancing a large number of metal barrels on his head as he walks down a street. Even though the barrels are presumably empty, the volume and weight of the metal place a massive strain on his neck and back. – Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) – Kerala – 1990

A fascinating moment capturing the coexistence of tradition and modernity in India. It depicts a street scene typical of the country’s rural regions or smaller towns, where old and new modes of transport share the same space. The yellow lorry is a classic model from Tata Motors, recognisable by its distinctive logo. These vehicles are often artistically decorated with colourful patterns or religious symbols. In direct contrast to this is the traditional cart in the foreground. The driver sits calmly amongst his cargo, whilst the heavily laden oxen plough their way forward – a sight that has scarcely changed for centuries. - Kollam (Quilon) - Near Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) - 1990

The town of Quilon lies sixty kilometres north of Trivandrum, the capital of the south-western Indian state of Kerala, on the Malabar Coast. The planters still often transport their spice harvests – mainly pepper, chilli and cardamom – to the buyers in the town using old-fashioned ox-drawn carts. From Quilon, the sacks of spices are transported by lorry to Kerala’s main port, Cochin, situated 120 kilometres to the north, from where they are shipped all over the world. – 1990

This photograph shows a boat-building workshop in the backwaters region of Kollam (Quilon) in Kerala, India. It depicts wooden fishing boats that have been pulled ashore on rails for maintenance work. A distinctive feature of the region are the dense groves of palm trees in the background, which are typical of Kerala’s waterways. – Journey to Allepey – 1990

Traditional fishermen casting a cast net in the backwaters of Kerala, in south-west India. The scene captures a typical means of livelihood in this water-rich region, which is known for its extensive network of lakes, rivers and canals. The fishermen use handmade nets and traditional wooden boats, often known locally as valloms. For thousands of people in the villages across much of Kerala, fishing is the primary means of livelihood. – Kollam (Quilon) – 1990

Along the coasts and inland waterways of Kerala, such as here around Kollam, one finds the famous Chinese fishing nets (known locally as Cheena vala) in the backwaters of Kerala, India. These distinctive, permanently installed dip nets are an iconic symbol of the region. They are mechanical devices made of wooden or bamboo poles that lower a horizontal net into the water and raise it again using counterweights (often stones). It is believed that this fishing technique was originally brought to Kerala by Chinese traders in the 14th century. - Kollam (Quilon) - Journey towards Allepey - 1990

The famous Chinese fishing nets (known locally as Cheena vala) in Fort Kochi (Cochin), a historic coastal town in the Indian state of Kerala. These unique structures are stationary lift nets that are permanently installed on land. They are considered a landmark of the region and are a defining feature of the Malabar Coast. It is believed that the nets were introduced to the coast by Chinese merchants in the 13th or 14th century. The nets are attached to large wooden or bamboo structures. To operate them, four or more fishermen are often required to lower the net into the water and pull it back up using counterweights (often stones or sandbags). – 1990

In the backwaters of Kerala, fishermen use very narrow, traditional wooden boats (known as vallams) and often steer them through lagoons and canals whilst standing, using long poles, as seen here on the Poothotta River near Cochin – 1990

A scene from one of the most historic and bustling commercial hubs in Kozhikode (Calicut), Kerala. Hand-pulled carts remain an integral part of logistics in the market’s narrow alleys to this day. Whilst modern lorries bring goods into the city, these workers – often referred to as ‘coolies’ – handle the final distribution to the warehouses. The jute sacks on the cart most likely contain rice, dried fruit or spices, the typical goods traded in this district. – 1990

As the streets in Kumily’s market districts are often narrow and bustling, traders rely on the tremendous strength of manual labourers to transport goods to the warehouses. The sacks often contain valuable goods such as cardamom, pepper or cinnamon, which are harvested from the surrounding plantations of Kumily and Thekkady. Kumily is regarded as the region’s most important spice trading centre. – Kerala – 1990

The ‘R.D. Drug House’ is a well-known pharmaceutical retailer in the historic district of Mattancherry in Kochi (formerly Cochin), Kerala. The elaborately designed blue wooden door is a classic example of the blend of colonial and regional styles found in Mattancherry. Many of these old buildings originally served as spice warehouses. In India, pharmacies or wholesalers of medicines are often referred to as ‘Drug Houses’. – 1990

A market scene in Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram). A woman sorts fresh fruit into large baskets for sale. Street markets like this are common throughout India. – 1990

This woman from Cochin wears a distinctive red dot on her forehead, known as a bindi. Originally a symbol of the ‘third eye’ and spiritual protection in Hinduism, it is now often worn as a fashion accessory. The teardrop shape is a classic style. She is wearing gold earrings with delicate detailing and a red garment, likely a sari or a dupatta. – 1990

Market stall in Kochi (Cochin), Kerala. Such detailed displays of pulses, grains and seeds are characteristic of the city’s historic market districts. The bowls contain typical staple foods of Kerala: pulses (various types of lentils (dal), chickpeas, mung beans and pigeon peas), cereals (various types of rice, maize and millet) and seeds (coriander seeds, mustard seeds and cumin). – 1990

At a market stall in Calicut, large jute sacks filled with bright red, dried chillies – a common sight in many Asian markets – are on display. – 1990

That’s a rather creative and improvised bicycle horn! It consists of an old, circularly curved metal horn that has been attached to the handlebars and the frame of the bicycle with string. A rubber ball wrapped in fabric was attached to the end of the horn and sealed with a red rubber band. It’s a great example of ‘Jugaad’ – an Indian term that stands for creative problem-solving with limited resources. – Found at the market in Calicut – 1990

A freshly harvested ginger plant (Zingiber officinale). Shown here are the underground rhizome (the root tuber) and the long, green stems with lanceolate leaves. The tuber is the most commonly used part of the plant. Freshly harvested ginger has a very light, fine and thin skin, which often has purple hues. The harvest season begins when the above-ground parts of the plant start to die back. – Kerala – Kumily – 1990

A worker empties a jute sack of ginger roots onto a large tarpaulin to sort them or dry them further. Scenes like this are typical of the historic spice warehouses and factories in Calicut, which are renowned for their centuries-old spice trade. – 1990

A large quantity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) is poured out of a jute sack onto the ground. The ginger roots (rhizomes) are cleaned, often peeled, and dried in the sun. Ginger is used as an aromatic cooking spice, as a base for ginger tea, or is valued in traditional medicine for its medicinal properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

Freshly harvested turmeric root (botanical name Curcuma longa), also known as yellow root. The plant forms underground rhizomes, which have a characteristic, intense yellow to orange colour on the inside. Turmeric belongs to the ginger family and resembles ginger root in appearance, but is usually smaller and more intensely coloured. The strong colouring comes mainly from the substance curcumin. – Kerala – Kumily – 1990

The well-known curry powder is a blend of turmeric, cardamom, pepper, paprika, coriander and other aromatic ingredients, the composition of which varies in India depending on the region, caste and dish. In Kerala, the mixture is traditionally prepared using a stone hand mill. - 1990

A cardamom field in the Cardamom Hills, which stretch over three hundred kilometres inland from Kerala, running parallel to the Malabar Coast. Like most spices, the cardamom plant requires a hot, humid climate. It thrives in humus-rich but marshy soil, in the shade of evergreen trees. The rootstock consists of a sturdy tuber and fleshy roots, from which reed-like stems sprout, bearing lanceolate leaves up to fifty centimetres long that clasp the stem. The flowering shoots are shorter and form spikes up to fifty centimetres long near the ground, bearing greenish-white to purplish-violet flowers. These develop into egg-shaped fruits or capsules. – 1990

In the Cardamom Hills, an Indian woman is gathering cardamom seeds. The harvest is a delicate process: the pods must be picked just before they ripen, otherwise they will burst open and scatter their seeds. For this reason, they are cut off one by one with scissors, taking care not to damage unripe pods or new flowers. On average, a cardamom field yields two thousand kilograms of green fruit per hectare, which loses two-thirds of its weight during drying. – Kerala – 1990

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) originates from southern India and Sri Lanka and belongs to the ginger family. In India, it is grown particularly in the states of Kerala (e.g. in the Idukki district) and Tamil Nadu, in shaded gardens or plantations. The pod-like fruits are harvested by hand when they turn a bright green colour. Each pod contains small black seeds inside, which are responsible for the intense aroma. Cardamom is one of the world’s most valuable spices and is often referred to as ‘green gold’ due to its significance. – Kerala – 1990

This man is holding a bowl of fresh green cardamom pods. Cardamom is considered the third most expensive spice in the world, after saffron and vanilla. It is prized for its complex, aromatic flavour and is used in a variety of ways. Cardamom is an essential ingredient in curries, teas (such as masala chai), desserts and baked goods worldwide. In traditional medicine, it is valued for its digestive and anti-inflammatory properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

Cardamom is considered the third most expensive spice in the world, after saffron and vanilla. It is prized for its complex, aromatic flavour and is used in a variety of ways. Cardamom is an essential ingredient in curries, teas (such as masala chai), desserts and baked goods worldwide. In traditional medicine, it is valued for its digestive and anti-inflammatory properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

A woman manually sorting green cardamom pods in Thekkady, Kerala. The pods are sorted by size and quality, often using woven baskets. Premium quality is frequently marketed as ‘Handpicked Excellence’. – 1990

Women from Thekkady in Kerala sort and clean cardamom pods by hand. They use traditional, flat wicker baskets to ‘winnow’ the cardamom or sort it by hand according to size and colour. Green cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is regarded as the ‘queen of spices’ and is grown in the cooler mountainous regions of southern India, known as the Cardamom Hills. Harvesting and subsequent cleaning are carried out almost entirely by hand, making cardamom one of the world’s most expensive spices after saffron and vanilla. – 1990

A young woman stands in the entrance hall of a house next to an impressive, intricately carved wooden door. The door features a detailed pattern comprising several panels, each decorated with a circular sun wheel motif. – Kerala – Thekaddy – 1990

The portrait of the young woman in the doorway is an example of Maximilien Bruggmann’s sensitive portrait photography. The photograph was taken in Thekkady, in the Indian state of Kerala, in 1990.

This lively, traditional fruit and vegetable stall was photographed in Murukkady, in the state of Kerala. Clusters of bananas hang from the ceiling. Various fruits and vegetables are piled high in the woven baskets. The classic black men’s bicycle in the foreground is a typical means of transport for traders and customers alike. – 1990

A powerful image capturing three generations in a moment of everyday life. The women are wearing clothing typical of rural areas such as Murukkady in Kerala. The younger woman is wearing a classic red sari with a floral pattern. The child has a bindi on her forehead and is wearing black bracelets – traditional symbols often worn for protection or for cultural reasons. – 1990

Three children, probably siblings, in a rural, green setting. The bindi dots on their foreheads and their style of dress suggest they are from the Murukkady area. – Kerala – 1990

Murukkady in Kerala is widely known for its extensive spice and coffee plantations. The region offers ideal conditions for growing a variety of crops. Here, a woman is picking coffee; both Arabica and Robusta varieties are grown here. Visitors to Murukkady can witness the entire process, from the harvesting of the coffee cherries to their processing. As well as coffee, the area is famous for pepper and cardamom, whose scent permeates the air. Cloves, ginger and turmeric are also cultivated here. – 1990

A man rows a traditional wooden boat, resembling a dugout canoe, through the picturesque backwaters of the Indian state of Kerala, a region often referred to as ‘God’s Own Country’. The scene captures the tranquil, characteristic atmosphere of the narrow canals and lagoons, lined with dense groves of coconut palms. – Thrikkunnapuzha – 1990

This scene is typical of the waterways in the backwaters of Kerala. The boat is a type of barge or dhow, often used to transport sand or other goods through the palm-lined canals. – Thrikkunnapuzha – 1990

This boat is a traditional vessel often referred to as a ‘Kettu Vallam’. Historically, these boats served as the ‘freight carriers’ of the backwaters, transporting goods such as rice, coconuts and sand before the advent of proper roads and railways. A characteristic feature is the sail, which is often made from simple materials such as grain sacks. The banks are densely covered with coconut palms, which is typical of this region near Thrikkunnapuzha, a picturesque coastal town in the Alappuzha district of Kerala. – 1990

The traditional boats of Kerala’s backwaters were historically used as ‘waterway lorries’ to transport goods such as rice, spices and sand. This is a Kettu Vallam from the Thrikkunnapuzha region. The boats are often characterised by hand-woven roofs made of coconut fibre and bamboo, as well as distinctive sails. – 1990

Locals in a traditional wooden boat (pirogue or canoe), used for transport and daily life on the waterways. The backwaters of Kerala in south-west India form an extensive network of lagoons, lakes, canals and rivers. The banks are lined with dense groves of palm trees, rice fields and small villages, making the backwaters a popular destination for nature lovers and those seeking relaxation. – Thrikkunnapuzha – 1990

Traditional huts with roofs made of palm fronds, situated directly alongside the waterways in the backwaters of Alleppey in Kerala. This region is famous for its extensive network of canals, rivers and lakes, lined with lush tropical vegetation and coconut palms. – 1990

These are the ingredients for a typical fish curry dish from the Malabar Coast in the south-western Indian state of Kerala. In the local dialect, Malayalam, these mackerel-like fish are called ayila. At the top left you can see coconut flakes, next to them small onions, salt, dried yellow tamarind peel, Indian pepper (ground pepper pods) and, in the middle, a brownish soy paste. Below these, from left to right, are fresh green chillies, tomatoes, a sprig of a laurel-like shrub – simply known as curry leaves in South India – and garlic. – 1990

The serious yet curious expressions on the two girls’ faces lend the photograph a profound emotional depth. The scene was captured in Thrikkunnapuzha and is typical of Kerala’s rural communities. – 1990

Portrait of a female officer of the Indian Home Guard (a voluntary auxiliary force to the police) in uniform. She is wearing a khaki-coloured uniform shirt, as is customary in various police forces in India. A silver badge is attached to her beret, featuring the Indian national emblem (Ashoka’s lion capital) at the top, above a wreath and a central, stylised bird (often interpreted as a dove of peace) with outstretched wings. She wears a bindi on her forehead and traditional Indian earrings (jhumkas). – Mahé – 1990

The posters on the wall advertise South Indian films. One of the most prominent posters (centre-right) shows scenes from the cult film *Michael Madana Kama Rajan* (1990) starring Kamal Haasan. Other posters feature films in Malayalam or Tamil. The photograph was taken in 1990. The scene also features a traditional ox-drawn cart used for transporting goods. In the foreground, a man is pulling a small handcart laden with wicker baskets, suggesting a busy street near the market in Cannanore (now Kannur).

Cannanore (now officially known as Kannur) in northern Kerala, India, is famous for this type of landscape. Here, there is a very special, traditional form of rice cultivation known as Kaipad. This involves integrated organic farming in the brackish coastal marshes. Typically, during the monsoon season, rice is grown on small mounds of earth, whilst during the drier months, aquaculture (fish and prawn farming) is often practised in the same fields. The dense groves of coconut palms lining the water-filled paddies are the hallmark of this region and make it a popular subject for landscape photography in Kerala. – 1990

Rice cultivation near Anjengo (also known as Anjuthengu), a historic coastal village in the Thiruvananthapuram district of the Indian state of Kerala. The image illustrates the traditional method of rice planting, which has been practised for centuries. Workers plant seedlings in flooded fields, a technique that is often carried out collectively. – 1990

The rice fields are flooded, which is the traditional method of rice cultivation. The water not only aids growth but also naturally suppresses weeds. A woman in a colourful sari walks along a narrow embankment that separates the individual fields. These embankments serve both as footpaths and to regulate the water level. – Kannur area – 1990

The rice fields are flooded, which is the traditional method of rice cultivation. The water not only aids growth but also naturally suppresses weeds. A woman in a colourful sari walks along a narrow embankment that separates the individual fields. These embankments serve both as footpaths and to regulate the water level. In the background, a farmer ploughs a flooded field with a plough drawn by water buffaloes. – Kannur area – 1990

A farmer ploughs a flooded field using a plough drawn by water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). The use of wooden ploughs and teams of oxen or water buffaloes is a centuries-old method that is still practised today in many rural areas. – Kannur district – 1990

This and the next photograph show the pepper berries hanging in long spikes or clusters. When harvested unripe, they are processed into green peppercorns, which are sold in tins or in brine. On the right, the berries have changed colour from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stalk encircles the strongly branched shoot. - Cardamom Hills in the Thekkadi area - 1990

This photograph and the previous one show the pepper berries hanging in long spikes or clusters. When harvested unripe, they are processed into green peppercorns, which are sold in tins or in brine. On the right, the berries have changed colour from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stalk encircles the strongly branched shoot. - Cardamom Hills in the Thekkadi area - 1990

Pepper harvesting in the Cardamom Hills near Thekkadi, a small town in the south-western Indian state of Kerala. The slopes of these hills are sparsely covered with deciduous trees, their trunks enveloped by the dense foliage of the pepper bushes. Pepper is a climbing plant which – much like wild vines or ivy – grows upwards on trees and rock faces using its tough, supple tendrils and adhesive aerial roots. To harvest the long clusters of pepper berries, the picker uses a sturdy bamboo pole, from which he has trimmed the side shoots to the width of a step, as a ladder. - 1990

The harvested pepper berries are spread out on straw mats to dry, during which time they turn grey to blackish, thus producing black pepper. White pepper is the hulled variety. Like nutmeg and cloves, pepper is mainly grown by smallholders. They deliver their harvest to buyers, who then sell it on to wholesalers. – Cardamom Hills, in the Thekkadi region – 1990

A pepper buyer in Kozhikode, formerly Calicut, on the Malabar Coast in Kerala. He collects the harvest from smallholders; here, it gradually fills the thick sacks of pepper. In the days of the Spice Route, when pepper was weighed against gold in Europe, ‘pepper sack’ became a derogatory term for wealthy spice merchants. - 1990

Santo Angelo Fort towers over the south-western Indian town of Cannanore on the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala. Unlike other fortifications, which are often left to fall into ruin, this fort, believed to date from the early 16th century, has suffered little damage. This magnificent structure still faces the sea, ready to repel any attackers. Unfortunately, its exact origin cannot be determined from the crown above the abutment. Cannanore was known for its sheltered harbour, which was already visited by Arab and Persian sailors in ancient times. – 1990

A road near Karwar, a coastal town in the Indian state of Karnataka. The region is known for its picturesque setting at the mouth of the River Kali, but also for its agricultural traditions. Drying red chillies by the roadside is a common practice in this area to preserve the harvest. The dark asphalt of the roads absorbs the sun’s heat and acts as a natural drying tray, which speeds up the process. – 1990

Two Indian women are using the heat and sunshine to dry chillies in front of their house. The photograph was taken near the town of Margao on the south-west coast of India, in what was formerly Goa. This region was colonised in 1510 by the Portuguese navigator Alfonso de Albuquerque, at a time when Portugal was building its global empire. Goa subsequently became the capital of Portugal’s Asian colonies. Saint Francis Xavier converted the local population in 1542, during a journey that took him as far as Japan. In 1962, Goa was occupied and annexed by India, after the government had long demanded its return from Portugal in vain. Today, Goa, together with Daman and Diu, forms the territory of Panjim, covering approximately 4,000 square kilometres. Alongside iron and manganese ore mining, the region’s vibrant economic activity includes the textile industry, fishing and spice cultivation. Although pepper was absent here during the era of the Spice Route – as it originates from the New World – it is now cultivated here, as in most tropical countries. - 1990

This striking structure, approximately 46 metres high, is the remaining bell tower of St Augustine’s Church in Old Goa (Velha Goa), India. Construction was begun in 1597 by Augustinian monks and completed in 1602. Following the expulsion of the religious orders from Goa in 1835, the complex was abandoned. The main building collapsed in 1842, whilst the tower shown here is one of the few parts to have survived. The ruins are situated on Monte Santo (Holy Hill) in Old Goa, about 10 km from Panjim. The site forms part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site ‘Churches and Monasteries of Goa’. – 1990

The picture shows St Augustine’s Tower in Old Goa, India. It is the most striking remnant of the once magnificent church and monastery of St Augustine. The church was completed between 1572 and 1602 by Augustinian monks. It was once one of the largest churches in Goa and indeed in the whole of Asia. Following the Portuguese government’s ban on religious orders in 1835, the monastery was abandoned and fell into disrepair. The façade and half of the tower collapsed in 1931, followed by further sections in 1938. Of the original four towers, only this single bell tower, approximately 46 metres high, remains today. The ruins form part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site ‘Churches and Monasteries of Goa’. On the right-hand side of the picture, decorated tiles (azulejos) can be seen on the remaining sections of the walls. These ornamental tiles are typical of Portuguese architecture of that period and bear witness to the former splendour of the interior. – 1990

The photograph shows historic tiles (glazed ceramic tiles) of the kind typically found in the ruins of St Augustine’s Church in Old Goa, India. These tiles feature characteristic motifs in shades of blue, yellow and ochre, bearing witness to the Portuguese influence in this region during the 17th century. The tiles are located on the remains of St Augustine’s Church, which was built around 1602. The photograph shows the tiles in a weathered state on a dark, moss-covered wall, which is typical of the ruins in the humid environment of Goa. – 1990

The Sé Cathedral of Santa Catarina, known as the Sé Cathedral, in Old Goa (Goa Velha), India. The cathedral was built between 1562 and around 1651 in the Tuscan style and is laid out in the shape of a Latin cross with three naves. It originally had two towers, but the northern bell tower collapsed in 1776 and was never rebuilt, giving the façade its current asymmetrical appearance. Its tower houses the famous ‘Golden Bell’, considered one of the largest bells in the world. Today, the cathedral forms part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site ‘Churches and Monasteries of Goa’. - The tree in front of the church is a columnar araucaria. A fascinating characteristic of this species is that, outside its native habitat (New Caledonia), it almost always exhibits a distinctive tilt, which is genetically determined to lean towards the equator. – 1990

A flower seller outside the Sri Manguesh Temple (also known as Shree Mangeshi Temple), located in the village of Mangeshi in Goa, about 21 km from Panaji. It is one of the most significant and most visited Hindu temples in the region. Pilgrims often buy coconuts, flowers or garlands before entering the temple. In Hindu tradition, the coconut is regarded as an ‘auspicious fruit’. Smashing the hard shell symbolises shedding the ego in order to reach the pure core within. The flowers and garlands are offered to the deity (an incarnation of Lord Shiva). The gentle laying of the flowers at the feet of the deity symbolises, ritually, the letting go of worldly desires. – 1990

The Basílica do Bom Jesus (Basilica of the Good Jesus) in Velha Goa (Old Goa). It is India’s first Basilica minor and is regarded as one of the most significant examples of Portuguese Baroque architecture in India. The foundation stone was laid in 1594, and the building was completed in 1605. The façade is made of granite and combines Corinthian, Doric and Ionic elements. Unlike many other churches in Goa, the exterior walls are not plastered, giving it its characteristic appearance of dark laterite stone. The church is world-famous as the resting place of Saint Francis Xavier. His remains lie in an ornate tomb inside. In 1986, the basilica was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List. – 1990

A fishmonger at a market in the Indian town of Vasco da Gama (often simply called ‘Vasco’) in the state of Goa, sheltering from the sun under a striking red parasol. – 1990

A wonderful, lively portrait! The smile of the woman in traditional Goan dress is very warm and engaging. It is typical of Maximilien Bruggmann that he understands how to get close to his subject and capture people’s dignity and zest for life without staging the scene. – Vasco da Gama – Goa – 1990

Traditional method of drying fish at Colva Beach, Goa. The fish (often mackerel or sardines) are laid out in neat rows on nets or coconut fibre mats in the blazing sun to preserve them through evaporation. This can take several days. Once the fish are completely dried, they are packed and sold at local markets. Dried fish is an important staple food, as it can be stored for long periods without refrigeration. – 1990

On Colva Beach, south of Panaji (or Panjirn), the capital of the territory of the same name, which also includes the former Portuguese colony of Goa. The dwarf mackerel laid out here to dry in the sun are turned over by women several times a day. Dried fish is a valuable food reserve for the people living in coastal areas. – 1990

A street vendor in Panaji displaying a large quantity of apples on a traditional two-wheeled cart. Such mobile fruit carts are a common sight in Indian markets and on the streets. – Goa – 1990

A street scene in Panaji (formerly Panjim), the capital of Goa, showing several people, including women in traditional saris, walking past a building covered in advertising posters. – 1990

A homeless girl in Maharashtra, Mumbai (formerly Bombay). Mumbai is known for having one of the world’s largest populations of street children. They often sleep directly on the pavement, in railway stations or under motorway bridges. Many earn a living by begging, collecting rubbish or selling small goods at transport hubs. – 1990

The Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market, far better known by its original name, Crawford Market, is one of the most historic and lively markets in Mumbai, India. The young woman, dressed in traditional clothing and wearing a small bindi on her forehead, is carrying a bundle of firewood. – 1990

At Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market, better known as Crawford Market, a woman sells sugar apples (Annona squamosa), also known as cinnamon apples or sitaphal. – Mumbai – 1990

A scene at Crawford Market (now Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Mandai) in Mumbai. The men, known as hamals (porters), balance goods in large woven baskets on their heads. – 1990

A typical four-wheeled handcart with large, spoked metal wheels, of the sort often found at street markets in India. The vendor is wearing a traditional orange sari with a blue and white striped scarf loosely draped over her head and shoulders. She is selling apples from the cart. - Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

This market stall offers a fresh selection of fruit and vegetables typical of Indian cuisine. The large baskets in the foreground and top right are bursting with bright green chillies, which provide the necessary heat. The vendor is holding a large bunch of fresh coriander in his hands – an essential herb for almost every curry. Fresh ginger, tomatoes and aubergines are also on display. On the right-hand side, small green mangoes are stacked into a neat pyramid. These are often used for pickles (achar) or salads. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

A scene at the bustling Crawford Market (also known as Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market) in Mumbai, India. A market trader sits amidst a colourful array of fresh vegetables, artfully displayed in baskets and on cloths. – 1990

Portrait of a man wearing a turban and a distinctive moustache. The turban is made up of long strips of fabric wrapped around the head using a specific method. In India, turbans often serve as a distinguishing feature for regions or communities. The red dot on the forehead is a tika (or tilak), a religious and cultural symbol in Hinduism. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

Portrait of an elderly man wearing a distinctive turban and a grey beard. He is dressed in traditional clothing and looks directly into the camera, creating an intense and characterful expression. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

The photograph shows an Indian market vendor at a vegetable stall offering a wide selection of fresh produce: fresh ginger, hot green chillies, green leafy vegetables and herbs, often including mint, coriander or watercress. – Crawford Market – Mumbai – 1990

A spice trader in Mumbai, in the state of Maharashtra. The spice market is the largest market in this port city on the Indian coast. During the British colonial era it was known as Crawford Market; today it is called Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Market. As well as spices, poultry, fruit, vegetables and much more are on offer here. Apart from ginger (next to his right knee) and fresh green chillies, this trader also sells herbs, lettuce and onions. – 1990

A view of the city of Udaipur, taken from a window of the City Palace. The City Palace was built over a period of almost 400 years and is situated on the banks of Lake Pichola. It is considered one of the largest palace complexes in Rajasthan and now houses museums showcasing the history and culture of the Maharana dynasty. – 1990

The sun symbol of the Mewar dynasty is displayed on the exterior of the City Palace in Udaipur, Rajasthan. This striking emblem depicts the sun god Surya and refers to the lineage of the rulers of Udaipur, who regard themselves as members of the Suryavamsha (Sun Dynasty). – 1990

A woman on the steps of a temple in Udaipur, often referred to as the ‘Venice of the East’ or the ‘White City’ and considered one of India’s most romantic cities. It is situated in the state of Rajasthan, nestled in the Aravalli Hills and surrounded by seven sparkling lakes. – 1990

A woman steps through the ornate gateway into the City Palace in Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. Above the entrance hangs the distinctive golden coat of arms of the Mewar dynasty. The emblem is deeply rooted in Rajput history and symbolises the alliance and strength of the empire: on the left is depicted a warrior of the Bhil tribes (Rana Punja Bhil), on the right a Rajput warrior (Maharana Pratap). This symbolises the alliance between the tribal peoples and the ruling family. Above the shield stands the Sun with a Face, the symbol of the House of Mewar, which traces its lineage back to the Sun Dynasty (Suryavansha). At the bottom is the motto: ‘Jo dradh rakhe dharame, tahi rakhe kartar’ (He who holds fast to his faith/duty will be protected by the Creator). – 1990

The picture shows the Mor Chowk (Peacock Courtyard), one of the most magnificent courtyards in the City Palace in Udaipur. The courtyard is famous for its three ornate peacock figures set into the walls. These mosaics are made up of around 5,000 glass and mirror elements in shades of green, blue and gold. The three central peacocks represent the three seasons in India: summer, winter and the monsoon season. Work on the courtyard began in the 17th century under Maharana Karan Singh and was later completed with the present-day glass mosaics under Maharana Sajjan Singh in the 19th century. Historically, this venue was used for private dinners, celebrations and royal audiences. In addition to the peacock mosaics, the courtyard captivates with its detailed glass inlays (jharokhas) and the characteristic black-and-white chequered marble floor. – 1990

This particular mosaic depicts a peacock with its tail fully spread, flanked by two smaller peacocks, set within a decorative niche in the Mor Chowk (Peacock Courtyard) of the City Palace in Udaipur, Rajasthan. The peacock is the national bird of India, and there are a total of five such mosaics in the City Palace, representing the different seasons (summer, winter and monsoon). - 1990

The City Palace in Udaipur is situated on the eastern shore of Lake Pichola. The palace complex is regarded as the city’s landmark and is the largest palace in Rajasthan. The complex is renowned for its magnificent courtyards, hall of mirrors, royal galleries and murals. – 1990

A traditional Indian ox cart in Udaipur, pulled by two zebu cattle (humpback cattle), which are well adapted to the warm climate. A striking feature is the painted horns (here in blue and yellow), which is a common tradition in many parts of India to adorn the animals or highlight their significance to the owner. The wooden cart has large, traditional spoked wheels. For a long time, such vehicles formed the backbone of rural logistics before being replaced in many areas by motorised vehicles such as tractors or auto-rickshaws. – 1990

At Indian markets such as this one in Udaipur, various types of green leafy vegetables and herbs are often sold in handy bunches directly on the street or at weekly markets. The produce is typically displayed in traditional, flat wicker baskets, which allow for good ventilation of the delicate greens. - 1990

In Udaipur, carrying loads on one’s head is deeply rooted in the culture: women in Rajasthan are known for carrying heavy loads such as water jugs (matkas), firewood or baskets of goods on their heads. This is stabilised by a fabric ring on the head, which is a very efficient carrying technique. – 1990

In Udaipur, elephants are a familiar sight in the streets, often used for ceremonial purposes or tourism, and are also firmly embedded in the cityscape in the form of impressive stone sculptures. In the background, the approach to Jagdish Temple, an important Hindu temple guarded by two imposing stone elephants. The façade itself is adorned with detailed carvings of elephants, horsemen and dancers. – 1990

This photograph shows the upper section of the steep staircase leading to the main entrance of the renowned Jagdish Temple in Udaipur. The temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu, the Preserver of the Universe, who is worshipped here as Lord Jagannath. The temple is renowned for its intricate stone carvings and sculptures, which depict scenes from Hindu mythology as well as dancers and musicians. In the background of the picture, these detailed friezes above the entrance area are clearly visible. - 1990

An Indian woman in a pink sari sits by the roadside, weaving flowers into garlands. This scene is typical of the bustling markets in the Udaipur region of Rajasthan. Such garlands are often used as offerings to deities in temples or presented during religious rituals such as the morning aarti. The art of weaving flower garlands is a centuries-old craft. - 1990

A subji-walli (vegetable seller) in India. She is sitting in a doorway in Udaipur behind baskets containing various vegetables such as spring onions, aubergines, cauliflower and green courgettes. The woman wears a traditional yellow odhni (headscarf) over a pink blouse. This type of street trading is widespread in India and provides a livelihood for many families. – 1990

A street vendor in Udaipur selling local fruit, vegetables and spices to passers-by. Udaipur is situated in a region steeped in history. In the moonlight, the palaces on the lakeshore evoke memories of tales from “One Thousand and One Nights”. – 1990

Two Indian women, deep in conversation, sitting in front of a blue-painted door in Udaipur, Rajasthan. The women are wearing colourful outfits typical of the region. One woman is wearing a peach-coloured sari with a floral pattern, whilst the other is dressed in a light blue, embroidered gown with a white, sheer headscarf (odhni or dupatta). – 1990

Card games played in public spaces are an integral part of everyday social life in Udaipur, the ‘City of Lakes’. Older men in particular often meet in the afternoon to play cards together. Popular spots include shady corners on pavements, temple steps or small forecourts in the old town. These gatherings are often lively and convivial. Many of the men here also wear traditional Rajasthani turbans and simple white clothing, which makes the scene very characteristic of the region. - 1990

The atmosphere in the picture, with the hanging goods and traditional clothing, is typical of Udaipur’s oldest markets. The winding streets of the old town, particularly around Jagdish Temple and the City Palace, still retain this timeless charm to this day. – 1990

Two women shopping at a market stall in Udaipur. The scene is characterised by the vibrant, traditional clothing and the rustic setting of a small street stall. – 1990

A woman standing in a doorway in Udaipur. She is wearing traditional Indian clothing, likely a sari or a lehenga choli, often complemented by a dupatta (veil) covering her head. – 1990

Following the first monsoon rains, a farmer in the Udaipur area leads a team of two white zebus (humpback cattle) to prepare the ground for sowing. A woman in a yellow sari carries a shallow bowl on her head, containing the seeds for the upcoming sowing. - 1990

The photograph depicts traditional farming in India, showing a farming couple ploughing a field with the help of oxen or zebus. This scene is typical of rural areas where hand-operated wooden ploughs are still used to prepare the soil for sowing. – Udaipur – 1990

The photograph captures traditional rural life in the Aravalli Hills, in the region between Udaipur and Narlai. In this area, agriculture is still largely characterised by traditional methods. Ploughing with oxen is a common method of tilling the soil in this hilly and often arid landscape. The area around Udaipur is known for the cultivation of cereals such as maize and wheat, as well as pulses. – 1990

In the area around Udaipur in Rajasthan, there are still a few places where you can see the traditional Persian waterwheel (often known locally as a ‘rahat’ or ‘araghatta’) in action. Unlike electric pumps, waterwheels draw water more slowly, which allows for a more sustainable use of the often scarce groundwater reserves. – 1990

This irrigation system in the Aravalli Hills near Udaipur is not a Rahat, but a Charas or Chades, which operates on a rope-pulley system. Oxen pull a rope up a ramp to hoist a large leather bag (the Charas) from a deep well. As soon as the bag reaches the top, it empties into the canal. There is no rotating wheel with many buckets here. – 1990

Around 80 to 100 kilometres north of Udaipur lies the impressive Kumbhalgarh Fort (also known as Kumbhalmer), a massive 15th-century fortress. The fort is situated in the Aravalli Hills at an altitude of over 1,000 metres. The fort is famous for its massive walls, which stretch for around 36 kilometres. They are considered the second-longest continuous wall in the world after the Great Wall of China. Within the walls are over 360 temples, including significant Jain and Hindu temples. The fort was built by Rana Kumbha, the ruler of Mewar. Due to its strategic location and thick walls, it was considered virtually impregnable. – The site has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2013. – 1990

The impressive Kumbhalgarh Fort (or Kumbhalmer Fort) is particularly famous for its massive rampart, often referred to as the ‘Great Wall of India’. In many places, the wall is so wide that up to eight horses can ride side by side on it. - 1990

Kumbhalgarh Fort is situated north of Udaipur on a 1,100-metre-high rocky outcrop near Nathdwara and is one of Rajasthan’s most significant fortifications. The fort walls, with their imposing bastion and semi-circular, strangely bulbous towers, were built in 1548. It was conquered only by the troops of the Indian Great Mughal Akbar, and even then only because he had the wells poisoned. Within the 36-kilometre-long fortress walls of this immense complex lie several temples, palaces and more modest dwellings. - 1990

Kumbhalgarh Fort was built in the 15th century (between 1445 and 1458 AD) by Rana Kumbha. It is also the birthplace of the legendary warrior Maharana Pratap. The fort was designed so that, despite its hilltop location, it is barely visible from a distance, making it an almost impregnable defensive structure. The walls are up to 15 feet (approx. 4.5 metres) thick in places. Within the massive walls are over 360 temples as well as palaces such as the striking Badal Mahal (‘Palace of the Clouds’) at the top of the fort. – Aravalli Hills in the Rajsamand district, about 84 km from Udaipur. – 1990

A traditional scene from rural India: a heavily laden ox cart is pulled by two zebu cattle. This mode of transport is a centuries-old tradition in India, which remains part of everyday life even today, particularly away from the main tourist routes. The cart is piled high with branches, which are presumably intended for use as firewood or building materials. The people on the cart are wearing the typical clothing of the rural population in regions such as Rajasthan. – Falna – 1990

The Persian wheel (also known as a saqiyah or araghatta) is an ancient method of drawing water. This scene is typical of the rural areas of Rajasthan. Similar installations are often found near Udaipur, Jodhpur or Kumbhalgarh Fort. – Ranakpur – 1990

The picture shows an zebu-driven water wheel, a traditional irrigation system known as a Rahat or Persian wheel. Oxen or bulls walk in a circle to turn a gear mechanism, which in turn drives a vertical wheel fitted with buckets (often made of clay or metal) attached by chains. The water is drawn from deep wells or rivers and channelled into irrigation canals to supply fields in rural areas. – Ranakpur – 1990

The picture shows an ox-driven water wheel, a traditional irrigation system known as a Rahat or Persian wheel. Oxen or bulls walk in a circle to turn a gear mechanism, which in turn drives a vertical wheel fitted with buckets (often made of clay or metal) attached by chains. The water is drawn from deep wells or rivers and channelled into irrigation canals to supply fields in rural areas. – Ranakpur – 1990

A man sits on the steps of the famous Adinath Temple in Ranakpur. This temple is renowned worldwide for its 1,444 individually carved marble pillars, none of which are alike. The bright red turban is a distinctive feature of the Rabari herdsmen. It symbolises honour and pride and also serves as practical protection against the Rajasthani sun. The flowers in the basket (often roses and marigolds) are sold as offerings for the religious rituals in the temple. Visitors purchase these to place them before the statue of Lord Adinath, the first Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of the Jains. – 1990

An extraordinary marble carving from the Ranakpur Jain Temple (also known as the Chaumukha Temple) in Rajasthan, India. It depicts Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of the Jain religion. A characteristic feature of Parshvanatha is the canopy of snake heads above his head. This particular carving is often referred to as Nagdaman. The sculpture is famous for its complexity: it depicts Parshvanatha surrounded by a dense network of 1,008 intertwined snakes. The snakes’ tails are so artfully interwoven that it is almost impossible to find their beginning or end. The temple was built in the 15th century and is considered one of the most significant masterpieces of Jain architecture. It is best known for its 1,444 individually carved marble pillars, none of which are alike. – 1990

Probably the best-known complex in Ranakpur is the 15th-century Adinath Temple, famous for its sophisticated architecture and rich sculptural decoration. It is the largest sacred building of Jainism, a religion founded by a contemporary of the Buddha which offers the prospect of liberation from the cycle of rebirth through good deeds. The temple consists of dozens of ‘chapels’ and hundreds of chiselled columns, each with its own unique ornamentation. As Jains are forbidden to kill living creatures, they are vegetarians. The monk in the picture is grinding yellow ochre; every visitor is entitled to an auspicious dot of this colour on their forehead. – 1990

The striking red headdress is a type of turban known locally as a pagri or safa. In Rajasthan, the turban is far more than just an item of clothing; it is a symbol of honour, pride and social status. The way a turban is wrapped, as well as its colour and pattern, often reveal the wearer’s origin, caste or profession. The magnificent white moustache is a sign of wisdom, masculinity and life experience in Marwari culture. – 1990

A flower seller outside a temple in Ranakpur, making garlands of orange marigolds (Tagetes). These flowers are of great cultural significance in India and are frequently used for religious offerings, temple visits and festivals such as Diwali. – 1990

The Rabari are a semi-nomadic pastoral people who live mainly in the western Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. They are known for their rich cultural identity, which is particularly reflected in their distinctive clothing and jewellery. The women traditionally wear heavy bangles, which can often extend from the wrist to the upper arm, as well as eye-catching silver jewellery around the neck and ears. – Ranakpur – 1990

Older Rabari women often have traditional tattoos (trahi) on their arms, legs or face, which have both aesthetic and cultural significance. The striking white upper-arm bangles are a distinctive identifying feature of married Rabari women in this region. A long veil or scarf covers the head and shoulders. These are often in bright colours such as red or black and may be decorated with small mirrors (shisha embroidery). – Ranakpur – 1990

The woman is wearing a type of odhani (a long veil) draped over her head. The gleaming golden vessel on her head is a typical Indian lota, used for carrying water. Balancing such loads is a skill widely practised in rural India. – Ranakpur – 1990

Collecting water is a vital task that often dictates the daily routine of women in the region around Desuri, which lies at the foot of the Aravalli mountain range, marking the transition between the more fertile Mewar region and the arid Thar Desert. The women wear colourful saris, often paired with bangles and face veils. Balancing heavy clay or metal jugs on their heads is a traditional method of transporting water over long distances. – Desuri – 1990

A large puddle in the foreground lends the scene an artistic depth. A woman in a traditional red sari balances a box on her head. This method of transporting water containers or building materials is common in this region. – Rajasthan, Desuri – 1990

The scene captures everyday life in the Indian city of Desuri following rainfall, a common occurrence during the monsoon season. The puddle on the street creates a clear reflection of the passers-by and the surrounding architecture. – 1990

This woman from Desuri in Rajasthan sells small fruits known as ber or Indian jujube. They are eaten fresh, dried or processed into products such as pickles and juices. – 1990

A scene from the village of Desuri (Pali district) in Rajasthan, situated in one of India’s driest regions on the edge of the Aravalli Mountains. Groundwater often has to be drawn from depths of over 30 metres, which requires robust pumps such as the India Mark II shown in the picture. This muscle-powered pump was developed in the 1970s to meet the water needs of villages in developing countries and rural areas. – 1990

A child is being carried safely on the back of a donkey. Interestingly, right next to the child are lambs in transport sacks, suggesting that a nomadic family is on a trek or moving on with their livestock. – Desuri, Rajasthan – 1990

An elderly man, often referred to as a baba or sadhu, sits in a relaxed posture on a platform made of logs and ropes. He wears a light brown turban and has a distinctive full white beard. Desuri region – 1990

Construction of the Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur began in 1459. The fort stands majestically atop a 123-metre-high rocky hill overlooking the ‘Blue City’. The fortress walls are up to 36 metres high and 21 metres wide. The fort is considered unconquered, as it has never been taken by force in its long history, despite numerous sieges. Today it houses a renowned museum. - 1990

Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur is one of the largest and best-preserved fortresses in India. Construction began in 1459 under Rao Jodha, the founder of Jodhpur. It is an imposing fortress built of red sandstone, whose massive outer walls rise to a height of 36 metres and blend seamlessly with the natural cliffs.

Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur is renowned for its ornate jharokhas (covered balcony recesses). These sandstone balconies, often featuring delicate jalis (latticework windows), provided cooling, privacy and sweeping views over the ‘Blue City’. The structure is entirely crafted from the red or brown sandstone characteristic of Jodhpur, masterfully carved by hand. – 1990

The famous ‘Blue City’ of Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The densely packed blue houses are mainly located in the old quarters below Mehrangarh Fort. Traditionally, the blue colour indicated that the houses were inhabited by Brahmins, the highest caste in Hindu society. – 1990

A densely built-up neighbourhood in Jodhpur, known worldwide as the ‘Blue City’ due to its distinctive blue-painted houses. Originally, members of the Brahmin caste painted their homes blue to signify their social status and to distinguish their houses from those of other social classes. As the region lies on the edge of the Thar Desert and is exposed to extremely high temperatures, the lime-based blue paint serves to reflect sunlight. This keeps the interior of the buildings noticeably cooler. Copper sulphate was mixed into the traditional lime paint. This chemical compound not only produced the deep blue hue, but also effectively protects the masonry from termite infestation to this day and keeps mosquitoes at bay. – 1990

The famous ‘Blue City’ of Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The densely packed blue houses are mainly located in the old quarters below Mehrangarh Fort. Traditionally, the blue colour indicated that the houses were inhabited by Brahmins, the highest caste in Hindu society. – 1990

A densely built-up neighbourhood in Jodhpur, known worldwide as the ‘Blue City’ due to its distinctive blue-painted houses. Originally, members of the Brahmin caste painted their homes blue to signify their social status and to distinguish their houses from those of other social classes. As the region lies on the edge of the Thar Desert and is exposed to extremely high temperatures, the lime-based blue paint serves to reflect sunlight. This keeps the interior of the buildings noticeably cooler. Copper sulphate was mixed into the traditional lime paint. This chemical compound not only produced the deep blue hue, but also effectively protects the masonry from termite infestation to this day and keeps mosquitoes at bay. – 1990

The famous ‘Blue City’ of Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The densely packed blue houses are mainly located in the old quarters below Mehrangarh Fort. Traditionally, the blue colour indicated that the houses were inhabited by Brahmins, the highest caste in Hindu society. As the region lies on the edge of the Thar Desert and is subject to extremely high temperatures, the lime-based blue paint serves to reflect sunlight. This keeps the interiors of the buildings noticeably cooler. The blue colour also serves to keep the houses cooler in the hot climate and to repel mosquitoes. – 1990

The historic Chhatri of Kirat Singh Soda is located within the grounds of the famous Mehrangarh Fort in Jodhpur. It is a memorial (cenotaph) to the brave soldier Kirat Singh Soda, who fell here whilst defending the fort. The pavilion stands on a raised platform, features intricately designed columns and is crowned by a large stone dome with richly decorated panels. The entire structure is built from weather-resistant red sandstone, typical of the region. – 1990

A view from the ramparts of the majestic Mehrangarh Fort over the historic old town of Jodhpur, also known as the ‘Blue City’. The densely packed clusters of houses, painted in indigo blue, dominate the entire cityscape. Traditionally, the blue wall paint signalled membership of the Brahmin (priestly) caste, but today it also helps to keep the buildings cool in the desert heat. In the foreground, one can see one of the typical, ornately decorated sandstone pavilions (chhatris) and the massive fortification walls of the fort. – 1990

This individual is most likely a Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). These vultures are very common winter visitors in north-western India, particularly around Jodhpur (such as at the well-known carcass site in Keru). – 1990

An elderly man in traditional dress from Jodhpur. His attire consists of a long white tunic (kurta) and loose, wrapped trousers (dhoti). On his head he wears a carefully wrapped, light-coloured turban (safa). In his hands he holds ritual or everyday objects, including an ornate metal vessel and lengths of fabric. – 1990

A traditional folk musician in typical regional costume, playing the historic stringed instrument known as the Ravanahattha. This is an ancient long-necked lute and one of the oldest known precursors of the modern violin. The body usually consists of a halved coconut covered with animal skin, and a long neck made of bamboo. The instrument has main and resonance strings, as well as a bow that is often decorated with small bells. – Jodhpur – 1990

Portrait of an elderly man from Jodhpur. He is wearing a traditional, colourful turban (pagri or safa). In the Rajasthan region, the way the turban is wrapped, its size and its pattern traditionally indicate the wearer’s caste, occupation and specific region of origin. In addition to its symbolic significance, the voluminous cotton fabric provides effective protection from the intense sunlight in desert regions. The colourfully patterned fabric of the turban is often designed in the regionally typical Leheriya (wave pattern) or Bandhani (tie-dye) style. – 1990

A woman in traditional Indian dress walking along an old stone wall. She is wearing a pink ghoonghat (headscarf/veil) and a patterned, reddish-pink gown. On her wrist she wears traditional bangles, which are typical of married women in this region. – Jodhpur – 1990

A woman in a blue sari is sitting on a four-wheeled wooden cart, which serves as her mobile stall for selling bananas. She is serving a woman in a pink, patterned sari. In the background, two sacred cows (zebus) are wandering freely along the street. – Jodhpur – 1990

An elderly woman in traditional dress is selling various goods. A brightly patterned cloth (sari or dupatta) covers her head and she has tattoos on her right forearm. In her hands she holds a traditional mechanical beam balance with two pans, used to weigh goods for customers. Behind the woman, several bicycles are leaning against a metal railing. – Jodhpur – 1990

Street scene in Jodhpur – A family of three riding together on a bicycle. – 1990

At the market in Jodhpur, local farmers sell their own produce, in this case red chillies and aubergines. – 1990

A young trader sits behind a large pile of fresh green chillies at a market in Jodhpur. These are elongated, light-green chillies with a mild to medium heat, which are frequently used in Indian cuisine for stews or as a side dish (e.g. Mirchi Bajji or Jwala chillies). – 1990

A traditional street barber at work outdoors. He is cutting a customer’s hair using a hand-operated clipper. This style of haircutting is typical of the informal sector in countries such as India (often referred to as a ‘roadside barber’). – Jodhpur – 1990

A man in traditional dress from the Rajasthan region. The large, intricately wrapped turban protects him from the extreme desert heat. The colour and style of the wrap often indicate social status, caste or the exact region of origin. The distinctive, often elaborately curled moustache, paired with a full beard, is a traditional symbol of masculinity, pride and honour in Rajasthan. The necklace with a gold amulet (often an amulet pendant known as a Madaliya) traditionally serves as a symbol of protection or indicates religious devotion. – Jodhpur – 1990

The portrait depicts an elderly man from Jodhpur wearing a traditional, intricately wrapped turban (safa or pagri) and a distinctive, split beard. In the desert region of Rajasthan, the turban is a proud symbol of honour, social status and membership of a particular caste or community. In addition to its cultural significance, the large, loosely wrapped strip of cotton fabric serves as practical protection against the extreme heat and sandstorms of the Thar Desert. Plain, light-coloured or earth-toned turbans such as this one are frequently worn in everyday life by older men, farmers or shepherds in rural areas. – 1990

A young girl in Jodhpur balances a woven basket on her head. The image documents the historically and socially deeply rooted practice of manual scavenging in South Asia. This involves carrying faeces or waste directly on the head. In practice, this work often falls to women and children from marginalised communities (such as the Dalits), who occupy the lowest rung of the traditional caste system. – 1990

The city of Jodhpur has a long tradition of making these hand-woven brooms (Jharoo). There is even the well-known Arna Jharna open-air museum, which is dedicated to the culture, various designs and ethnological background of Indian brooms. In Rajasthan, these brooms are often hand-bound from dried palm leaves of the wild date palm (Khajur) or special, robust desert grasses. – 1990

A young woman from Jodhpur wearing traditional clothing and jewellery. A delicate, pink veil is loosely draped over her head. She has a bindi on her forehead, a traditional red dot adorned with a small gemstone. She wears a traditional necklace (often referred to as a thushi or timaniya) with small, gold-coloured pendants, as well as a simpler chain underneath. She wears numerous bangles on her forearms. – Sardar Market (or Girdikot) in Jodhpur – 1990

Balancing heavy sacks or bundles on one’s head is a common way of transporting goods in many rural and urban areas of India. The toddler sitting on the woman’s hip looks unhappy. – Sardar Market (or Girdikot) in Jodhpur – 1990

Two elderly men from Jodhpur, wearing traditional turbans, are taking a smoke break. The men are squatting in a typical Indian resting position beside large jute sacks by the roadside. One man wears a voluminous, pure white turban, as is often seen in the daily life of older village communities in regions such as Jodhpur. The other man wears a colourful red turban with a bandhani pattern (a traditional Indian tie-dye technique). – Sardar Market (or Girdikot) in Jodhpur – 1990

This three-wheeled vehicle is a Tempo Hanseat, an iconic mode of transport that has been a familiar sight on Indian roads for decades. The vehicle was originally developed in the 1940s and 1950s by the German company Vidal & Sohn Tempo-Werke in Hamburg-Harburg. In 1958, the Indian company Firodia Ltd (later known as Bajaj Tempo and now Force Motors) entered into a partnership with Tempo-Werke. Production of the Hanseat continued under licence in India until the year 2000. Although it was designed as a light goods vehicle, owners frequently converted it. Fitted with bench seats and a canopy, it served as a shared taxi for large numbers of passengers in many regions of India – particularly in rural areas. The vehicle featured a distinctive front-wheel drive layout, with the engine positioned directly above the single front wheel. Legendary features included the extremely loud, rattling engine noise, starting the engine via a pull-cord under the bonnet, and the angled rear wheels, which only straightened up under heavy loads. – Jodhpur – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. This type of turban is known locally as a safa or pagri (pagadi). In Rajasthani culture, the turban is far more than just an item of clothing. It symbolises pride, honour and the social status of the wearer. Its shape, colour and the way it is wrapped can provide clues as to the region, caste or occasion. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. The vibrant patterns are often based on traditional dyeing techniques such as bandhani or colourful woven designs. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. The vibrant patterns are often based on traditional dyeing techniques such as bandhani or colourful woven designs. In the hot desert regions of Rajasthan, the long, artfully wrapped strip of fabric effectively protects the head from the intense sunlight. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. This type of turban is known locally as a safa or pagri (pagadi). In Rajasthani culture, the turban is far more than just an item of clothing. It symbolises pride, honour and the social status of the wearer. Its shape, colour and the way it is wrapped can provide clues as to the region, caste or occasion. – 1990

Chibani is an elderly man from Jodhpur who wears a traditional, very colourful headdress. The vibrant patterns are often based on traditional dyeing techniques such as bandhani or colourful woven designs. In the hot desert regions of Rajasthan, the long, artfully wrapped strip of fabric effectively protects the head from the intense sunlight. – 1990

The camel cart is the perfect means of transport in arid regions such as here near Jodhpur, on the edge of the Thar Desert. Such traditional carts still characterise the rural and semi-desert landscape there to this day. The local desert dwellers use these carts every day to transport crops, dry grass or cotton between the surrounding villages. The wide car tyres on the cart prevent the heavy team from getting stuck in the fine, hot desert sand. – 1990

In the narrow streets of Jodhpur, below the monumental Mehrangarh Fort, street vendors like this and intricate murals are a familiar part of the everyday cityscape. The woman is stringing together fresh flowers, which in India are used for religious rituals (puja), temple visits and weddings. In the metal basin lie orange and yellow marigolds (Tagetes), which in Hindu culture symbolise purity and the divine. – 1990

At Jodhpur’s spice market, a colourful array of spices, grains, seeds and powders is displayed in square and round containers. Yellow, red and white powders (such as turmeric, chilli powder or rice flour) form the basis for curries, stews and pasta dishes. Pulses, lentils and mustard seeds are used for nutritious side dishes, soups or for toasting in hot oil. Spice blends lend a deep flavour to meat, fish and vegetable dishes. – 1990

The backdrop to this shop in Jodhpur is dominated by packaged goods from the Indian food industry, though spices and staple foods are still sold in bulk. – 1990

In Hinduism, cows are considered sacred and untouchable, which is why they are often found right in the midst of public life, as here at a bustling street market in Jodhpur. The veneration of the cow is deeply rooted in Indian culture and continues to play a role in political and religious debates to this day. The market stall sells various items of clothing and toys, a typical sight at urban Indian street markets. – 1990

A traditional open-air market stall selling a variety of handmade household goods and tools made of metal or wood. – Jodhpur – 1990

A street vendor selling traditional earthenware pots at the market in Jodhpur. The woman is wearing a traditional, colourful costume, as well as eye-catching arm and foot jewellery. The large, round, light-coloured vessels are traditional Indian water pots, known as matkas. These unglazed pots use evaporative cooling to keep drinking water cool naturally during the hot summer. In the foreground are stacks of smaller, reddish-brown clay bowls and pots, painted with delicate black and white patterns. These are often used for storing food, dairy products such as yoghurt (dahi), or as cooking vessels. Hand-woven mats or fans (probably made from palm leaves) are also on sale. – 1990

A traditional roadside barber (often referred to as a ‘roadside barber’), a common sight in public spaces in countries such as India, as seen here in Jodhpur. All that is needed for this makeshift salon is a simple blue wooden chair, a small table with a mirror, and barber’s tools. – 1990

This photograph was taken in the streets of Jodhpur. It captures the reality of life for an elderly homeless man sitting on the ground and eating his meal. Many people with no fixed abode live and sleep in the narrow market alleys around the historic Clock Tower and Sardar Market. – 1990

A bustling street scene in Jodhpur, where a camel cart – a traditional means of transport – makes its way through the modern traffic. The camel shares the road with motorbikes, buses and pedestrians. – 1990

In India, the scooter is seen as a symbol of the middle-class dream. It provides families with an affordable means of transport, and it is not uncommon for several people – often an entire family – to ride on a single vehicle at the same time. – Jodhpur – 1990

This young man is wearing a traditional Indian headdress known as a Jodhpuri Safa. This turban is usually made of cotton or georgette, and is often decorated with traditional patterns such as bandhani (tie-dye). It is frequently worn at weddings (as a groom’s safa) or other festive occasions. A safa often consists of a long strip of fabric (up to 8.5 metres) that is artfully wrapped around the head. – Jodhpur – 1990

An older man’s standing in Rajasthan is reflected in his traditional Rajasthani attire. The colourful, patterned turban is the most striking feature. It consists of a long strip of fabric and symbolises honour, pride and social status. The white top (angarkha, a tunic) with its small floral pattern is a traditional wrap-style garment. It is often tied at the side with cords. The red cloth around the waist serves as a belt and a decorative element. A long, well-groomed beard is often a sign of maturity and dignity in this region. – Jodhpur – 1990

A nomad from the Thar Desert (Rajasthan). The men who led the long caravans of camels towards the Indus Valley and on through the steppes of what is now Pakistan and Iran towards the Mediterranean, or upstream via the Khyber Pass towards Afghanistan and southern Russia, would likely have looked much the same. – Jodhpur – 1990

Threshing grain is a traditional agricultural technique in which grains are separated from the chaff by dropping them into the wind from a certain height. A woman lifts a basket to clean the grain in the wind, whilst a man sits on the ground and sifts the grain. It is likely to be pearl millet. In Hindi and the local Rajasthani language, this nutrient-rich grain is called bajra. It is extremely drought-resistant and a staple food for the people in this desert region (e.g. in the form of bajre ki roti, a flatbread). – Area around Jodhpur – 1990

A man is sitting on the ground, sifting the grain. It is likely pearl millet. In Hindi and the local language Rajasthani, this nutrient-rich grain is called bajra. It is extremely drought-resistant and a staple food for the people in this desert region (e.g. in the form of bajre ki roti, a flatbread). – Area around Jodhpur – 1990

A woman is performing the ritual known as ‘threshing’, in which grain (such as millet or wheat) is thrown into the air so that the wind separates the lighter chaff from the heavier grains. The woman is wearing many bracelets, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made of materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A man from the Rabari community, an indigenous group of nomads and herders. Rabari men traditionally wear very large, voluminous white turbans. The way the turban is wrapped and the pattern (here a subtle floral print) can often provide clues as to the specific region or social status. Wearing large gold earrings and several beaded necklaces is an integral part of the male traditional costume and serves both as decoration and as an expression of wealth. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A woman from the Rabari community is piling the grain she has winnowed into a heap. She is wearing many bangles, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made from materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A woman is performing the ritual known as ‘threshing’, in which grain (such as millet or wheat) is thrown into the air so that the wind separates the lighter chaff from the heavier grains. The woman is wearing many bracelets, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made of materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

This young woman from the Jodhpur area is wearing the traditional jewellery and clothing characteristic of the nomadic communities in this region. The numerous white rings on her upper and lower arms are known as churas. In many Rajasthani tribes, married women wear this jewellery, which was traditionally made of ivory or bone and is now mostly made of plastic. Her facial jewellery includes a striking nose ring (nath) and an elaborate headband (matha patti). The heavy necklaces with green beads and large metal pendants are typical examples of the region’s tribal-style silver jewellery. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A woman is performing the ritual known as ‘threshing’, in which grain (such as millet or wheat) is thrown into the air so that the wind separates the lighter chaff from the heavier grains. The woman is wearing many bracelets, which are an essential status symbol for married women in Rajasthan. Wearing many bracelets – particularly those made of materials such as coloured glass, clay or the traditional lac (resin) – indicates that a woman is married and symbolically serves to ensure her husband’s protection, health and long life. – Jodhpur area – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the Thar Desert. This distinctive architectural style is particularly common in the village of Khuri, near Jaisalmer. The houses are made of mud, clay and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme heat of the desert. The striking geometric patterns in white, ochre and reddish-brown are typical of this region and are often applied by the women of the village using natural pigments. – 1990

A traditional house in the village of Khuri, situated in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. The walls are mostly made of a mixture of clay, straw and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme desert climate – keeping the house cool in summer and warm in winter. The striking geometric patterns on the exterior walls are called mandana. These ritual wall paintings are traditionally created by women using lime (white) and red clay (geru) to protect the house and invite good fortune. Typical features include the flat roofs, small windows to keep out the heat, and the distinctive wooden door, often painted turquoise or blue. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the Thar Desert. This distinctive architectural style is particularly common in the village of Khuri, near Jaisalmer. The houses are made of mud, clay and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme heat of the desert. The striking geometric patterns in white, ochre and reddish-brown are typical of this region and are often applied by the women of the village using natural pigments. – 1990

The picture shows traditional Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal painting in India. These murals adorn the mud-brick houses of Khuri in the Thar Desert. Mandanas are painted to protect homes from evil spirits and to welcome the gods (particularly the goddess Lakshmi) into the house. The geometric patterns symbolise the cosmic order and spiritual balance. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the Thar Desert. This distinctive style of architecture is particularly common in the village of Khuri, near Jaisalmer. The houses are built from mud, clay and cow dung, which provides natural insulation in the extreme heat of the desert. The roofs are traditionally thatched with straw or brushwood to keep the interiors cool. – 1990

A scene from the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer. The building is a typical mud-brick house with thick walls that keep the interior cool by day and warm by night. The stepped, white-framed doorway is a characteristic architectural feature of this region. A woman wearing a colourful red odhni (veil) balances a water pot on her head, a daily task in water-scarce desert areas. Cattle are an integral part of daily life in Indian desert villages. – 1990

A scene from the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer. The building is a typical mud-brick house with thick walls that keep it cool by day and warm by night. The stepped, white-framed doorway is a characteristic architectural feature of this region. A woman wearing a colourful red odhni (veil) balances a water pot on her head, a daily task in water-scarce desert areas. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house in the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert. These houses are characterised by their hand-painted walls, which often feature colourful geometric patterns in shades of red, yellow and white. In the foreground is a girl in a bright pink robe, carrying a bowl on her head – a typical scene from daily life in the rural regions of Rajasthan. – 1990

The houses in the village of Khuri are traditionally built from mud, straw and cow dung, which provides natural insulation against the extreme heat of the desert. The geometric patterns and motifs on the whitewashed walls are typical of the region around Jaisalmer and Barmer. They are often painted using natural pigments such as lime (white) and red ochre (reddish-brown). Many of these houses have conical, thatched roofs known as ‘jhumpas’. – Cattle are an integral part of daily life in Indian desert villages. – 1990

The picture shows traditional Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal painting in India. These murals adorn the mud-brick houses of Khuri in the Thar Desert. Mandanas are painted to protect homes from evil spirits and to welcome the gods (particularly the goddess Lakshmi) into the house. The geometric patterns symbolise the cosmic order and spiritual balance. – 1990

A scene from the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert in Rajasthan. The houses are made of mud, straw and cow dung, which provides natural insulation against the extreme desert heat. The white, stepped patterns on the brown mud walls are typical of the region’s folk art, often known as Mandana art. – 1990

Traditional way of life in Khuri in the Thar Desert. A typical mud-brick house with thick walls for natural cooling. A white façade with a striking green wooden door and decorative geometric patterns on the walls. A clothesline in front of the house with colourful garments. A large clay pot (matka) for cooling water and metal drinking cups on the veranda. On the right of the picture, a traditional Indian bed, a charpai, is leaning against the wall. – 1990

The photograph shows a man from Khuri wearing the region’s traditional headdress. His striking appearance, with his pink turban and thick moustache, is a classic symbol of Rajasthani culture and pride. In Rajasthan, the way a turban is wrapped can often reveal which village or caste a person comes from. A long, proudly worn moustache is regarded in Rajasthan as a sign of masculinity and prestige. – 1990

This boy from Khuri, with a heavy sack on his head, is an example of how even the youngest members of the family have to help their families with their work in rural areas. – 1990

A musician from Khuri plays the kamaicha (also known as the kamayacha), one of the oldest stringed instruments in the world. It is carved from a single piece of mango wood. The soundbox is large and circular, and covered with goatskin. The instrument has 17 strings. Three main strings are made of goatskin, whilst the remaining steel or copper strings serve as resonating strings. It is played with a bow and is known for its deep, resonant sound, often described as the ‘heart and soul’ of Rajasthani folk music. – 1990

A nomad travelling with two dromedaries in the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert. These animals are perfectly adapted to the hot, dry conditions of the desert. They carry wooden saddles or racks used for transporting water, firewood or trade goods. – 1990

A rural scene in Rajasthan, where women are milking a family cow by hand. This traditional method of milk production is widespread in rural India and is often part of daily life in farming villages. Milking is traditionally often carried out by women, whilst the whole family, including the children, helps with household chores and animal care. Cows are considered sacred in Indian culture and are a vital source of livelihood for the rural population. – Khuri – 1990

A scene from the traditional village of Khuri. The photograph captures the essence of rural life in this arid region, where architecture and craftsmanship are closely intertwined with the surrounding environment. In the background, a couple can be seen at a spinning wheel (charkha), a symbol of the traditional production of yarn from wool or cotton, which is still widespread in the villages of the Thar Desert. The open courtyard in front of the house is the centre of daily life, where people work, eat and socialise. – 1990

The Meghwal are known as a community of carpet weavers and produce handmade items from camel, goat and sheep’s wool. The division of labour is traditionally defined, with women combing, cleaning and spinning the wool, whilst the men usually weave it into carpets or traditional fabrics. The hand-spun wool is used to create high-quality carpets, blankets and shawls featuring traditional patterns. The device shown in the picture is a classic Indian charkha. The technique of spinning whilst seated on the floor has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. – Khuri – 1990

A view of the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. The houses are built from mud and cow dung, which provides excellent insulation against the extreme heat of the desert. The white decorations (mandana) around the door and on the walls are typical of Rajasthan. The clay pots (matkas) in front of the house are traditionally used to cool water. – 1990

A man wearing a white turban sits in front of a traditional mud house in Khuri. The house is made of mud, which provides natural cooling in the desert region of Rajasthan. The decorative patterns on the wall are characteristic of the regional village style. – 1990

The picture shows a man tying a turban, a traditional headdress that holds deep symbolic significance in many cultures – particularly in India. The orange turban shown here is often referred to as a pagri or dastar. The bright orange colour (often called ‘kesariya’ or saffron) symbolises courage, self-sacrifice and spirituality. In Rajasthan, the wrapping techniques and colours often vary from village to village and can even indicate social status or the occasion (such as a wedding). – Khuri – 1990

A man dressed in traditional Rajasthani attire steps out of his house in the village of Khuri in the Thar Desert. He is wearing a striking orange turban and is holding an antique flintlock musket (known locally as a ‘torador’). In the foreground are bulbous clay vessels (amphorae), traditionally used to store water or grain. – 1990

This man, wearing a bright orange turban (safa or pagri), is holding a rifle. It is a torador, a classic Indian matchlock musket. A striking feature is the curved stock, which is often decorated with inlays of ivory or bone. These rifles were used in northern and central India from the 16th century well into the 19th century. They served both for protection and for hunting big game. The barrels were often elaborately chiselled and the stocks painted or inlaid with precious materials. – Khuri – 1990

A potter (Kumhaar) in Rajasthan shaping ceramic vessels on a traditional, hand-operated potter’s wheel made of clay. The potter uses a heavy wheel made of stone or hardened clay, which is often set in motion with a stick. Natural clay is used to create vessels such as cups, jugs and pots. – Khuri – 1990

In front of a traditional mud hut, two women are spinning yarn on a charkha, a hand-operated spinning wheel. Hand spinning is a deeply rooted craft tradition in Rajasthan. One hand turns the drive wheel, whilst the other hand draws out the fibres (usually cotton or wool) into a fine thread and winds it onto the spindle. – Khuri – 1990

Khuri is renowned for preserving ancient craft techniques, which are often practised as a sideline to farming and tourism. In this region, weavers often produce dhurries (flat-woven rugs) or pattu (traditional woollen blankets). The loom is a classic horizontal floor loom. It is portable and perfectly suited to life in the desert. The weaver uses a heavy wooden comb to beat the weft threads of coarse wool (often from sheep or camels) firmly into the warp. The fabrics are extremely durable and are often decorated with geometric patterns typical of the local folklore of the Thar Desert. – 1990

A woman from Khuri in Rajasthan. Her appearance is deeply rooted in the traditions of the local nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. The yellow-green headscarf (odhani) protects her from the intense desert sun and is an essential part of the traditional women’s costume. The golden nose ring (nath) with small decorations is a classic feature of married women in rural areas of Rajasthan. She wears heavy, layered necklaces, including yellow pearl necklaces and silver amulets, which often serve as protective symbols. On her arms are the characteristic white bangles, traditionally made of ivory (nowadays mostly plastic). The red dot on her forehead has spiritual significance and often symbolises the ‘third eye’ or her married status. – 1990

A woman from Khuri in Rajasthan. Her appearance is deeply rooted in the traditions of the local nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. The yellow-green headscarf (odhani) protects her from the intense desert sun and is an essential part of the traditional women’s costume. The golden nose ring (nath) with small decorations is a classic feature of married women in rural areas of Rajasthan. She wears heavy, layered necklaces, including yellow pearl necklaces and silver amulets, which often serve as protective symbols. The red dot on her forehead has spiritual significance and often symbolises the ‘third eye’ or her married status. – 1990

Junagarh Fort in Bikaner features several rooms with striking blue wall decorations. The Badal Mahal (Palace of the Clouds) is particularly famous for this. Many of the blue tiles in the fort, especially in the Gaj Mandir, are blue and white porcelain tiles from Europe (often from the Netherlands or Great Britain), which were installed there in the 18th and 19th centuries. The colour blue was often used to symbolise the rain and coolness of clouds – a precious commodity in the Rajasthan desert. Animals (such as horses or elephants) used to be tethered to the metal ring on the wall. – Bikaner, Rajasthan – 1990

Junagarh Fort, a historic fortress in the city of Bikaner in Rajasthan. It was built between 1588 and 1593 by Raja Rai Singh. The complex is renowned for its 986-metre-long wall featuring 37 bastions. Unlike many other forts in Rajasthan, it is not situated on a hill but on the plain. The facades are largely made of finely carved red sandstone. The main gate is known as Suraj Pol (Sun Gate). – 1990

This structure is Junagarh Fort in Bikaner. It is regarded as one of the most impressive and best-preserved fortresses in India, as, unlike many other forts in the region, it was never captured by enemies. It was built between 1588 and 1593 under Raja Rai Singh. It is constructed mainly from red sandstone, which is typical of Rajasthani architecture. A massive, 986-metre-long wall with 37 bastions surrounds the complex. – 1990

The scene captures a typical, bustling moment at a public transport bus stop in Deshnoke, characterised by improvisation and a dense crowd. Deshnoke (also known as Deshnok) is a small town in the Indian state of Rajasthan, around 30 km south of Bikaner. – 1990

Cattle market in Phalodi, situated in the heart of the Thar Desert between Jaisalmer and Bikaner. Although camel caravans have become very rare, dromedaries remain important as riding and pack animals in the desert. – 1990

Even in the desert, spice traders seek buyers for their wares; here, at the livestock market in Phalodi, they are selling dried chillies. In Indian cuisine, however, chillies are considered as much a vegetable as a spice. – 1990

At the traditional cattle market in Phalodi, this man is preparing a thin flatbread. The freshly chopped vegetables (potatoes and chillies) are staples of everyday Rajasthani cuisine, which makes do with just a few ingredients in the barren desert environment. – 1990

A trader at the livestock market in Phalodi sells traditional, very large metal basins or cooking pans (often referred to as kadhai or tasla). The basins are made of sturdy, hammered iron or sheet steel. The individual metal plates, which have been firmly joined together with rivets, are clearly visible. These handmade vessels are used for preparing large quantities of food at festivals or for agricultural purposes. – 1990

Portrait of an elderly man from the rural areas of Rajasthan. The artfully wrapped turban provides protection from the strong sun, whilst the gold earrings are a traditional form of jewellery for men in this region. – Phalodi – 1990

A man with a full beard and a traditional turban (often referred to as a pagri or pugree). This headdress consists of a long, unsewn piece of cloth that is artfully wrapped around the head. – Phalodi – 1990

The large white turban worn in the Rajasthan region protects against extreme heat and often signifies social status or membership of a particular community. The traditional leather shoes are handmade and typical of this region. They are characterised by their pointed shape and sturdy leatherwork. The simple wooden stick is used by shepherds or elderly villagers in rural areas as a walking stick and a tool. – Phalodi – 1990

A peanut seller (often called a ‘Mungfali-Wala’) stands behind a four-wheeled wooden cart piled high with unshelled peanuts. In the middle stands a small pot, often containing hot coals, to keep the peanuts warm and crispy. A classic pressure lamp (Petromax) can also be seen, which is used for lighting at dusk and in the evening hours. – Phalodi – 1990

Camel carts such as these are a typical and traditional means of transport in the rural areas of Rajasthan. The cart, pulled by a dromedary, is heavily laden with large tree trunks. It is fitted with modern, pneumatic rubber tyres, which make it easier to pull along tarmac roads. – Pokhran – 1990

In the rural and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, water is an extremely scarce resource. It is a traditional, often arduous task for women and young girls to walk for miles every day to wells or water points to provide for their families. The containers are balanced directly on the head using a small, ring-shaped cloth pad (called an indhoni), leaving the hands free whilst walking. The girl wears traditional jewellery such as necklaces and a discreet nose ring. - Lathi - 1990

Women from the desert region around Lathi and Jaisalmer are known for these colourful traditional costumes, which stand in stark contrast to the barren, sandy desert landscape. This woman is carrying a small child in her arms and is dressed in a patterned tunic (often called a kurti), combined with a striking, usually red headscarf (odhni or dupatta), which is artfully draped over her head and shoulders. Typical of this region are the heavy, multi-layered necklaces with beads and silver pendants, as well as the wide bangles, which are often made from imitation ivory, bone or plastic and cover almost the entire forearm. – Lathi – 1990

This young girl from the arid and water-scarce region of the Thar Desert is balancing two containers on her head. At the bottom of her head is a large, ribbed tin can. Placed on top of this is a traditional, shiny vessel made of brass or bronze. Such vessels (often referred to in India as a lota or ghara) are traditionally used to carry and keep water fresh. To distribute the weight and protect the head, a small, ring-shaped fabric pad (known as a chumbal or indhoni) is usually placed directly on the hair beneath the containers. Balancing the load on the head keeps the hands free and allows for an upright posture, but requires extreme dexterity and strong neck and back muscles from a very young age. – Lathi – 1990

A young girl from Lathi in the Thar Desert carries a large, traditional metal vessel (often referred to as a matka or ghara) on her head. Beneath the heavy vessel, a small, ring-shaped cushion made of cloth or straw rests on her head. This stabilises the load and alleviates the pressure. Carrying water containers on the head is a traditional method of transporting water. – 1990

A young girl from Lathi balances a large, gleaming golden metal vessel (traditionally known as a lota or ghada) on her head. Carrying loads on the head is a centuries-old practice. A small, ring-shaped cloth pad (chumli or indhoni) is often placed between the head and the vessel to distribute the pressure and make it easier to balance. In many rural areas without running water, fetching water is a daily task, often involving a walk of several kilometres, which is frequently carried out by women and children. – 1990

The historic fort of Jaisalmer (also known as Sonar Qila or the Golden Fort), situated in the heart of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, India. It is considered one of the few remaining ‘living forts’ in the world. Around a quarter of the old town’s population still lives and works directly within the fort walls today. It was founded in 1156 AD by the Rajput ruler Rawal Jaisal, from whom the city also took its name. The entire complex, as well as the surrounding historic merchant houses (havelis), were built from local yellow sandstone. When the sun shines, the fort glows in a honey-gold hue, earning it the nickname ‘Golden City’. The massive stone blocks were joined together at the time using precise dry-stone masonry techniques (interlocking blocks without cement or mortar). Since 2013, Jaisalmer Fort has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Hill Forts of Rajasthan. – 1990

The city of Jaisalmer lies in the heart of the Thar Desert, some 150 kilometres north-west of Jodhpur as the crow flies. It owed its splendour and wealth entirely to the caravans of the Silk and Spice Routes, which travelled here from Central and South Asia towards the Indus Valley in the west. The city is dominated by the mighty citadel, dating from the 12th to the 16th century. Numerous interior rooms are adorned with paintings and mosaics, and the façades also feature interesting ornamentation. In the lower town are 18th-century palaces, the havelis, which were built for wealthy merchants and boast exceptionally beautifully decorated balconies. The most magnificent building, the Patwah-ki-Haveli from the early 19th century, is particularly fascinating for its incredibly varied chiselled window ornaments. – 1990

The majestic Jaisalmer Fort (also known as Sonar Quila or the Golden Fort), situated in the heart of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, was founded in 1156 AD by the Rajput ruler Rawal Jaisal. It was built from yellow sandstone on Trikuta Hill. The walls shimmer in shades of sand during the day and turn a warm honey gold at sunset. Since 2013, the complex has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Hill Forts of Rajasthan. – 1990

A view of the citadel of Jaisalmer with its imposing, soaring towers, which offer a magnificent panoramic view. French travellers have, quite rightly, called the city the ‘Carcassonne of the Desert’. – 1990

A camel cart, women dressed in traditional colourful saris and a classic car all reflect the lively daily bustle at the foot of the massive defensive walls of the majestic Jaisalmer Fort. The structure is famous above all for its monumental, circular bastions and walls of yellow sandstone, which shimmer like pure gold in the sunlight. It is one of the very few remaining ‘living forts’ in the world, as its interior still houses residential quarters, markets, hotels and centuries-old temples. – 1990

The photograph shows the impressive architecture of Jaisalmer Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan. The entire structure is built from local sandstone, which has been assembled without mortar using precise interlocking joints. One can also see the typical narrow, ascending alleys, which served a defensive purpose, as well as small, ornate window openings (jharokhas) and stone corbels. In the foreground, a person can be seen wearing traditional Rajasthani clothing with a bright orange turban, which emphasises the region’s distinctive character. – 1990

The historic Suraj Pol (also known as the Sun Gate or Surya Gate) is one of the four successive, massive fortified gates of the famous Jaisalmer Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan. The gate was built in 1594 and is deliberately designed in a zigzag curve. This military tactic prevented attackers (particularly those with war elephants) from gaining sufficient momentum to breach the gate with battering rams. Above the archway is a delicately carved, semi-circular stone relief imitating traditional Rajasthani motifs. – 1990

One reaches the citadel of Jaisalmer through the magnificent Surya Pol gateway, with its richly chiselled, harmoniously structured façade. Jaisalmer’s decline began with the development of the major sea routes, before the railway dealt the final blow to the caravan route through the desert. The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 then put a definitive end to trade with the Indus Valley. However, the constantly simmering conflicts between the two neighbours gave the region a new strategic importance, with the result that today the army and tourism are the city’s main sources of income. – 1990

The building depicts the magnificent Tilon Ki Pol gateway leading to the artificial Gadisar Lake in the desert city of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. Constructed from the region’s characteristic golden-yellow sandstone, this two-storey gateway has one of the most fascinating histories. It was commissioned in the 14th century by a wealthy and famous royal courtesan named Tilon. The then ruler (Maharawal) of Jaisalmer initially rejected the structure. As he used the lake regularly, he felt it was beneath his dignity to pass under a gate financed by a courtesan. He threatened to have the gate demolished. Whilst the king was away on a journey, Tilon had the gate completed without further ado. To permanently prevent the threatened demolition, she placed a statue of the god Vishnu (often described as a Krishna temple) atop the gate. As the building was thus regarded as a sacred site, the king was no longer permitted to destroy it. The gate is notable for its classic Rajput architectural style: the jharokhas are delicate, stone-carved, balcony-like bay windows typical of the architecture in Jaisalmer. Two striking pavilions (chattris) crown the outer corners of the gate. Through the large main arch of the gate, one looks directly out onto the calm waters of Gadisar Lake and the small shrines built within the lake. - 1990

The Gadi Sagar Temple, situated in the middle of the historic Gadisar Lake in Jaisalmer. The pavilion was built from the region’s characteristic golden-yellow sandstone and features ornate arches and a traditional dome (chhatri). The lake was artificially created in the 12th century by King Rawal Jaisal. For centuries, it served as a vital drinking water reservoir for the entire fortified city of Jaisalmer. – 1990

The picture shows an ornately decorated chhatri pavilion on Gadisar Lake in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. The artificial lake was built in 1367 by Maharawal Gadsi Singh. For centuries, it served as the vital and primary source of water for the desert city of Jaisalmer. The striking, dome-like pavilions, which stand in or at the edge of the water, are typical features of Rajput architecture. They were constructed from the region’s characteristic golden-yellow sandstone and served as royal cenotaphs, monuments or shaded resting places. – 1990

The intricately carved torana (ornate gateway) of the historic Lodhurva Jain Temple near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. It is an outstanding example of Maru-Gurjara architecture (also known as the Solanki style). The entire structure is built from the characteristic golden-yellow Jaisalmer sandstone. In Indian temple architecture, a torana symbolises the solemn transition from the secular outside world into the sacred, spiritual realm of the temple. The original temple complex was built as early as the 9th century, when Lodhurva was still the capital of the Bhati Rajputs. Following severe destruction caused by invasions, this magnificent gateway was faithfully reconstructed in 1615 AD. – 1990

These buildings in the desert town of Jaisalmer are constructed from the characteristic golden-yellow sandstone of the Thar region. These historic mansions (havelis) dominate the streetscape of the old town. Of particular note are the intricately carved stone balconies with their delicate patterns. – 1990

A lively street scene in a historic, narrow alleyway typical of the architecture in Jaisalmer. The walls and floor are rendered in warm, earthy tones, some adorned with white frames around the doors. The paths are narrow and paved with large stone slabs, which is typical of old fortified towns in Rajasthan. In the middle of the alley, a man stands by a handcart laden with large metal containers, presumably selling milk or water. – 1990

The eye-catching poster at the top left advertises the famous 1989 Bollywood film ‘Maine Pyar Kiya’ (English: I Fell in Love). It features the lead actors Salman Khan and Bhagyashree. This film was a huge milestone in Indian cinema. - Street scene from Jaisalmer featuring a woman in a traditional, bright pink sari. – 1990

A street scene in Jaisalmer. The woman is wearing a classic sari in a striking shade of pink, traditionally wrapped around the body and pulled over the head. On the wall is a faded, hand-painted advertisement for Limca. Limca is a lemon- and lime-flavoured soft drink that is very well known in India; it was launched in 1971 and is now owned by the Coca-Cola Company. The sign above the doorway suggests a furniture shop. On the right-hand side, the rear wheel of a typical Indian roadster bicycle can be seen; this remains the main mode of transport. – 1990

The woman is wearing a traditional odhni (veil/headscarf) over her clothes, which is typical of women in the Thar Desert (Rajasthan). The building is constructed of sun-dried mud bricks, finished with a mud plaster (kucha house). This traditional construction method provides excellent thermal insulation against the extreme heat of the desert regions. – Jaisalmer – 1990

This intricately carved stone façade is located in Jaisalmer Fort in Rajasthan. The fort is world-renowned for its yellow sandstone architecture, which is why it is also known as the ‘Golden City’. The walls are made of local yellow sandstone, which has been assembled without mortar using traditional construction methods. The door on the left has a magnificently carved frame featuring floral patterns and reliefs depicting peacocks and a central wheel (chakra). The ornate, metal-studded wooden doors reflect the region’s classical craftsmanship. – 1990

The picture shows the traditional exterior wall of a mud house in the Jaisalmer area of Rajasthan, decorated with the intricate traditional folk art known as Mandana art. This wall decoration is one of the oldest forms of tribal art in India. It is traditionally applied to walls and floors by women. The paintings are created for festive occasions such as Diwali, weddings or births. They serve to protect the house, welcome deities and attract good fortune. The brown background consists of a mixture of clay and cow dung (Geru Mitti). The white, delicate patterns are painted using a liquid made from white chalk or lime (Khadiya), applied directly by hand or with simple brushes. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house (kucha) in the Jaisalmer region, decorated with white lime paint. A woman in a red sari stands in the doorway, hanging up a bright orange cloth. The white decorations on the brown mud walls are examples of Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal and folk art in India, practised mainly by women in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. – 1990

A traditional mud-brick house (kucha) in the Jaisalmer region, decorated with white lime paint. Standing in the doorway is a woman in a red sari, hanging out the washing. The white decorations on the brown mud walls are examples of Mandana art, one of the oldest forms of tribal and folk art in India, practised mainly by women in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. – 1990

Two children from Jaisalmer peering out from a richly decorated, traditional stone window (known as a jharokha). Historically, jharokhas in palaces and residential buildings served to allow women and children to look out onto the street without being seen themselves (the purdah tradition). The window features a decorative, pointed roof (Chhatri style), with ornamentation at the base. At the top, it features an elegant, multi-segmented keel arch (curved arch), typical of the Rajput architectural style. – 1990

This portrait depicts a girl named Ambu from Jaisalmer in the Thar Desert in Rajasthan. The name of this desert means ‘the land of the dead’. Yet life thrives there nonetheless, for the girl’s name means ‘water’ – a symbol of hope for a fruitful future. Ambu wears a striking, beaded headband in yellow and red, with a round, golden decorative button attached at the front. Traditional golden earrings hang from her ears, featuring delicate filigree patterns and small green accent beads at the bottom. A red dot (bindi) is applied to her forehead. Her eyes are heavily outlined and emphasised with traditional dark kohl. – 1990

A group of musicians from Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, playing traditional folk music on their instruments. They are wearing the colourful turbans (pagris) and white robes typical of this region. The two box-shaped keyboard instruments (on the left and in the middle) are harmoniums. They produce sound via a built-in bellows, which is pumped with one hand whilst the other hand plays the keys. The horizontal drum on the right is a dholak. It is a double-headed hand drum that is very widely used in Indian folk music. The repertoire often includes Qawwali songs and epic chants that have been passed down through generations. – 1990

An elderly man sits on an intricately carved wooden chair, waiting for customers. He is wearing a traditional turban (pagri), a khaki-coloured jacket and white trousers (dhoti). An everyday scene from Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. – 1990

These elderly men are engaged in deep conversation outdoors, whilst a little girl watches from the background. The group is standing in front of an ornately decorated, sandstone-coloured wall, typical of the architecture in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. – 1990

A street scene in Jaisalmer, showing a traditional cobbler (mochi) working outdoors while a customer wearing an orange turban squats in front of him. – Rajasthan – 1990

An elderly woman sits on the ground operating a traditional mechanical beam balance. She is selling a variety of local vegetables, such as green chillies, aubergines and various leafy greens. – Jaisalmer Market – 1990

At a market in Jaisalmer, a young woman wearing a yellow sari is selling various vegetables: potatoes, onions, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, green chillies, spring onions, etc. – 1990

Red chillies are traditionally sun-dried. The intense sunlight draws the moisture out of them. This prevents mould from forming and allows the chillies to be stored for months or even years. This method also concentrates their flavour and heat. In the background are filled jute sacks. They are used to transport and store the dried chillies before they are sold at spice markets or processed into chilli powder. – Jaisalmer, Rajasthan – 1990

A small shop in Jaisalmer, notable for its wide variety of colourful goods displayed in glass jars. A boy sits relaxed in the shop’s entrance, intently reading a newspaper written in Hindi (Devanagari script). This typical traditional shop, often referred to as a kirana shop or paon shop, makes the most of its limited space. – 1990

At the market in Jaisalmer, we see an impressive collection of traditional, handcrafted clay pots known as matkas. These unglazed clay pots have been used for centuries for the natural cooling and storage of drinking water and food. – The pots are expertly stacked in a sturdy structure to air-dry before being fired in the kiln. – 1990

A large collection of hand-painted clay water pots, known as matkas in Indian culture. Matkas utilise the principle of evaporative cooling. Through the microscopic pores of the unglazed clay, a minimal amount of water seeps out and evaporates, keeping the remaining water inside pleasantly cool even in intense heat. The pots are decorated with characteristic patterns. These include geometric shapes such as zigzag lines, waves, dots and bands of lines, usually applied in white, black and reddish earth tones. The production of these vessels is a craft dating back thousands of years, passed down from generation to generation. Each pot is shaped on the potter’s wheel and then artistically painted by hand. – Jaisalmer – 1990

The impressive façade of Patwon Ki Haveli in Jaisalmer, one of the most significant architectural monuments of the ‘Golden City’. The entire residence was built from the local yellow-gold sandstone for which the desert region around Jaisalmer is famous. The façade captivates with its numerous richly decorated, projecting balconies (known as jharokhas) featuring the finest stone carving, reminiscent of lace or lace borders. The delicate stone lattices (jalis) serve not only as decoration but also allow for constant air circulation, keeping the interior of the building cool even in the extreme desert heat. – 1990

The impressive façade of Patwon Ki Haveli in Jaisalmer, one of the most significant architectural monuments of the ‘Golden City’. The complex was commissioned in 1805 by Guman Chand Patwa, an extremely wealthy merchant dealing in brocade, gold and silver thread, and opium. It is not a single building, but a connected complex of five separate havelis, built over a period of around 50 to 60 years for his five sons. Parts of the complex are now managed by the state heritage authority, whilst another part serves as a private museum (Kothari’s Patwa Haveli Museum), offering an insight into the luxurious lifestyle of the merchant class in the 19th century. – 1990

In the historic desert town of Jaisalmer in the state of Rajasthan, a woman dressed in traditional clothing walks along an alleyway within the walls of Jaisalmer Fort. The buildings are constructed entirely from the region’s characteristic golden sandstone, which is why Jaisalmer is also known as the ‘Golden City’. In the background and to the sides, one can see the intricately decorated stone façades, bay windows and balconies of traditional Indian mansions, known as havelis. – 1990

A tailor sits engrossed in his work at his mechanical sewing machine in the historic desert town of Jaisalmer. The window frame is a typical example of the delicate jharokhas (artfully carved sandstone balconies) for which Rajasthani architecture is famous. – 1990

A woman in traditional dress steps out of an intricately decorated doorway, carrying a gleaming water jug. The massive stone columns and the frame around the door are covered from top to bottom with delicate floral patterns, ornaments and reliefs, of the kind frequently found on the historic haveli mansions in Jaisalmer. An outstanding example of the region’s traditional craftsmanship. – 1990

The famous Salim Singh ki Haveli (also known as Moti Mahal) in the desert city of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. The building was commissioned in 1815 by Salim Singh, the then extremely powerful and equally feared Prime Minister (Diwan) of the Kingdom of Jaisalmer. The upper storey features a striking, sweeping structure modelled on a peacock and is surrounded by a total of 38 elegant balconies, each adorned with unique ornamentation. Due to its ship-like shape, the building is also popularly known as Jahaz Mahal (Ship Palace). The entire façade is constructed from the golden sandstone typical of Jaisalmer. It captivates with its masterfully crafted balconies (known as jharokhas), delicate lattice windows and curved Bengali roofs. – 1990

This relief is located on the outer wall of the historic Lodurva Jain Temple near Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, India. This ancient temple complex was once the capital of the Bhatti Rajputs before Jaisalmer was founded. It is renowned for its intricate stonework and delicate carvings in yellow sandstone. - Seated on the back of the richly decorated elephant is a figure in a traditional posture, likely holding a weapon or an elephant goad (ankusha) to guide the animal. – 1990 Latticed windows and curved Bengali roofs. – 1990

A woman walks down a street in Jaisalmer wearing traditional, colourful clothing. She is wearing a pink ghagra choli (a loose-fitting skirt and top) and a patterned red dupatta (veil) covering her head. She skilfully balances a large, rolled-up quilt or mattress on her head. In her right hand, she also carries a full, light-green plastic bag. Carrying heavy loads on the head is a common method of transport in many rural regions of India. – 1990

Barbati, a nomad dressed in the traditional attire of the Bhopa community from the desert region around Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, sits on a stone step with her toddler on her lap. She wears a traditional ensemble consisting of a vividly coloured veil (known as an odhni or dupatta) and a printed blouse (choli), as well as a floor-length, loose-fitting skirt (ghagra). A striking feature is the large, golden nose ring, which is artfully fastened to her hair or ear by a chain. In many rural regions of Rajasthan, this piece of jewellery signifies a woman’s marital status. On her forehead, a round, glittering pendant sits directly at the hairline, a typical element of Rajasthani wedding and festive attire. On her wrists she wears thick, traditional bangles (often made of imitation ivory, bone or colourful plastic), which can cover almost the entire forearm and are firmly rooted in the regional culture. – 1990

The nomad Barbati in traditional, colourful festive dress. The striking pink veil covers her head and is often artfully draped over her shoulders. On her forearms she wears stacked, wide bangles in the traditional colours of white, red and blue, typically made from imitation ivory, plastic or glass. A delicate, traditional tattoo pattern can be seen on the back of her hand. – Jaisalmer – 1990

This portrait of the nomad Barbati is characterised by a wealth of symbolic and ornate jewellery: on her forehead, just beneath her veil, she wears a round, bell-shaped ornament. This piece of jewellery is typical of married women in Rajasthan. A large, delicately crafted nose ring, attached to the hair or behind the ear with a fine chain (often studded with pearls). It is traditionally regarded as a sign of marital status. – Jaisalmer – 1990

The bright pink veil worn by the nomad Barbati covers her hair and is typical of women from the region around Jaisalmer. It serves both as protection from the sun and as a sign of respect. The striking, round ornament on her forehead is a traditional hairpiece often worn by married women in Rajasthan. The large, elaborately decorated golden nose ring is connected to the earrings or her hair by a delicate chain. She wears a bindi on her forehead. Her neck is adorned with several heavy, traditional necklaces (some decorated with coins). – 1990

The bright pink veil worn by the nomad Barbati covers her hair and is typical of women from the region around Jaisalmer. It serves both as protection from the sun and as a sign of respect. The striking, round ornament on her forehead is a traditional hairpiece often worn by married women in Rajasthan. The large, elaborately decorated golden nose ring is connected to the earrings or her hair by a delicate chain. She wears a bindi on her forehead. – 1990

Barbati, a nomad from the Thar Desert, makes chapati, the flatbread known in various forms throughout the Near East. She kneads flour, salt and water into a smooth dough, which she shapes into a round disc between her hands, much like a pizza chef, and then cooks in a pan, turning it several times. – 1990

Barbati, a nomad, is preparing dough outdoors whilst wearing her traditional Indian attire. She is dressed in a colourful ensemble consisting of a dark top and skirt with a floral pattern, as well as a bright pink veil (dupatta or odhni) covering her head. Her jewellery is very striking and includes several necklaces (including one with coin pendants), bangles on both wrists, earrings and traditional headdresses. In front of her stands a clay bowl containing dough, and she is currently shaping a ball of dough with her hands. Next to the bowl is a small bottle of oil. – Jaisalmer region – 1990

Barbati, a nomad, is preparing dough outdoors whilst wearing her traditional Indian attire. She is dressed in a colourful ensemble consisting of a dark top and skirt with a floral pattern, as well as a bright pink veil (dupatta or odhni) covering her head. Her jewellery is very striking and includes several necklaces (including one with coin pendants), bangles on both wrists, earrings and traditional headdresses. In front of her stands a clay bowl containing dough, and she is currently shaping a chapati with her hands. Next to the bowl is a small bottle of oil. – Jaisalmer region – 1990

Making dough for flatbreads is a daily ritual in almost every Indian household. The everyday, unleavened flatbread chapati is made from whole wheat flour (atta) and water. Preparation: Flour and water are mixed in a shallow bowl (often made of clay, brass, or wood, called a parat) and kneaded vigorously until a smooth dough forms. This is divided into small, uniform balls and rolled between the palms of the hands. The balls are either rolled flat with a rolling pin (belan) or flattened by hand. The bread is baked directly in the embers. – Jaisalmer region – 1990

Preparation of Aloo Gobi, a classic North Indian vegetable dish. It consists mainly of cauliflower florets (gobi) and potatoes (aloo). The vegetables are mixed with a yellowish liquid, which is turmeric powder dissolved in water or oil. Turmeric gives the dish its characteristic golden-yellow color. It is usually cooked over an open fire. It is then gently braised or fried in a kadhai (an Indian wok) along with cumin, ginger, garlic, and onions. The finished dish is usually served dry (sabzi) without much sauce and garnished with fresh cilantro. – Jaisalmer – at the home of the nomad Barbati – 1990

Portrait of a young Indian woman in traditional clothing from the Jaisalmer region. Her style of dress and jewelry reflect India’s rural culture. She wears a striped top (choli) paired with a red, patterned skirt (ghaghra) and a matching headscarf (odhni or dupatta). On her wrist, she wears numerous light green glass bangles as well as a wide silver bracelet. Her face is adorned with traditional earrings (jhumkas) and a delicate nose ring (nath). – 1990

This historic, ornately decorated truck (often known as the “Nissan One Ton” or Nissan 4W73) was photographed in the desert region around Jaisalmer. These rugged four-wheel-drive vehicles were originally developed for military use and later adapted for civilian use. The body and the wooden superstructure above the cab are decorated with detailed floral patterns, ornaments, and inscriptions in Hindi and Sanskrit. A large eye is painted on the hood. This widespread symbol traditionally serves as protection against the “evil eye” (Nazar) and is said to protect the vehicle and its crew on long journeys. A curtain made of fine metal chains hangs in front of the front bumper. These fringes swing back and forth while driving, producing a rattling sound that is also believed to contribute to the ritual warding off of evil spirits. An image of a deity is affixed to the top of the front panel, a feature typical of Indian trucks, to invoke divine blessings for the journey. – 1990

This truck is a classic example of the colorful and artistic truck decoration that is a tradition in India and Pakistan. Indian script (Devanagari) can also be seen above the windshield. The license plate displays the letters “RNM.” In the old Indian license plate system (in use until the late 1980s), the combination “RN” specifically stood for the state of Rajasthan. On the left side, a camel pulls a transport cart—a common mode of transportation in Rajasthan. - The vehicle and scenery shown bear a striking resemblance to the famous truck from the Indian film “Road, Movie” (2009/2010), starring Abhay Deol, which was also filmed in the distinctive desert landscapes of Rajasthan. – 1990

Dromedaries and their guides near the city of Jaisalmer. These animals no longer carry spices, but instead transport tourists on excursions in the surrounding area. – 1990

The Thar Desert stretches largely across the Indian state of Rajasthan and parts of Pakistan, and is known for its combination of various desert landscapes. The eroded, rocky hill in the background (Bhakars) is characteristic of the foothills and isolated ridges that repeatedly break through the sandy plains of the Thar. The pronounced wind ripples on the undulating dunes in the foreground reflect the sandy habitats that characterize large parts of the region. The sparse shrubs and grasses in the sand represent the typical xerophytic (drought-resistant) flora of the Thar, such as thorny shrub species (Capparis decidua or Acacia). These deep-rooted plants also serve as important soil stabilizers against wind erosion. – 1990

In the Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, which stretches across northwestern India (primarily Rajasthan) and parts of Pakistan, these small creatures play a remarkable role in the ecosystem. They belong to the family of darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae). These beetles use a sophisticated method to obtain water. In the cool morning hours, they position themselves head-down on the dune crests (often referred to as fog-basking). Moisture in the air condenses on their smooth exoskeletons and flows directly into their mouthparts. As saprophages, they feed primarily on organic waste, dried plant matter, and the dung of desert animals such as camels. In this way, they maintain the nutrient cycle of the barren sand dunes. While temperatures in the Thar Desert can reach extreme levels during the day, the beetles escape the deadly heat by burrowing into the sand at lightning speed or seeking shelter under sparse vegetation. – 1990

Much of the Thar Desert consists of flat sandy plains and dune landscapes, some of which are covered with thorny shrubs. In areas without vegetation, such as the famous Sam Sand Dunes near Jaisalmer, one can find striking, untouched ripple structures like the one in the photo. The sand ripples and shifting dunes in the Thar Desert change primarily during the hot summer months due to the strong southwest monsoon winds. The winter winds play a rather minor role. – 1990

Perhaps camels laden with spices once passed through here on their way across the Thar Desert in Rajasthan. In the distance, you can see a caravanserai where the camel drivers would rest at nightfall before continuing their long journey toward the Middle East the next morning. - 1990

From ancient times to the present day, the Nile and its canals have remained the sole means of transportation in Egypt, serving both the humblest of boats and the magnificent royal vessels. Depictions of sailboats and rowboats were ubiquitous in Egyptian art. Indeed, the sun god and his retinue used boats to traverse the heavens and reach the afterlife. Before the construction of the Suez Canal, spices were transported by ship from India across the Red Sea to Egypt. There, they were loaded onto camels, driven down to the Nile Valley, and then reloaded onto ships. Together with other goods, they were eventually transported to the shores of the Mediterranean. Today, despite competition from railroads, trucks, and airplanes, goods are still transported by boats traveling down the Nile. The photo shows a felucca, a small, long, light, and narrow sailboat with two masts leaning forward. The sail, which has holes and is patched, still billows in the wind and allows the boat to follow the river’s course. – 1984

The Egyptian city of Quseir on the western coast of the Red Sea is dominated by the minaret of a mosque. Arab merchant ships also landed here with their cargoes of spices, which were transported by dromedaries along the Wadi El-Hamrnamat to Qus on the Nile, below Luxor. There, the cargo was transferred to feluccas—the two-masted Nile boats with lateen sails still in use today—which carried the goods to Cairo and Alexandria. – 1984

Every Tuesday, there is a camel market in the Upper Egyptian village of Dirwan. Most of these dromedaries come from Sudan and have been brought here in caravans. – 1984

In Bir-Abbad, Upper Egypt, dromedaries are being watered at a watering hole. This watering hole is located on an old caravan route between the Red Sea and the Nile Valley. – 1984

In Qurna, on the left bank of the Nile across from Luxor, a market is held once a week. Like so many other markets of this kind in Egypt and other countries in the Middle East, this market is visited by hundreds of people—sellers and buyers alike—and the atmosphere is perfect for attracting tourists. At these markets, you can find a little bit of everything: fruits, vegetables, and spices, which are an integral part of the locals’ daily diet. – 1984

This relief depicting a cargo boat with a distinctive amphora on board comes from the Mastaba of Idut (also known as the Tomb of Princess Idut) in Saqqara. The entrance area and the adjoining chambers of this tomb are world-famous for their dense, vivid depictions of life on the Nile. Directly at eye level, the reliefs there depict papyrus boats and wooden ships engaged in fishing and the transport of trade goods. The reliefs are among the best-preserved examples of Old Kingdom relief art. Many of the scenes still bear traces of their original colored paint. – 1984

Detail from the older part of Luxor Temple, 18th Dynasty. According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, only the pharaoh was authorised to conduct religious services. This is why the temple reliefs always depict the king interacting with the gods, even though in reality he was represented by a large group of priests. In this section, Amenhotep III (1391–1353 BC), protected by the falcon Horus, offers sacrifices to the god Amun-Re (presumably on the right). These are placed on a tray held in the king’s hands and on a sacrificial table before him. They include drinks and food: water or wine, various types of bread, vegetables, chicken legs and plucked geese. The offering was presumably also enhanced with spices. On the sacrificial table, a slender libation vase and an elegant incense burner can also be seen, from which small flames rise, ready for the priestly rites that will take place in private. The floor is also strewn with flowers, which form part of the traditional offerings. – 1984

The Eyüp Mosque in Istanbul, Islam’s third holiest city after Mecca and Jerusalem. This magnificent building on the Golden Horn was constructed in 1458 over the supposed tomb of Eyüp Ansari, the standard-bearer of Muhammad, who fell during the first siege of Constantinople by the Muslims in 669 and was buried on the battlefield. The small columned pavilion in the foreground shelters the fountain used for ritual ablutions. – 1989

Four elderly men are enjoying the warm spring sunshine and reminiscing about days gone by. A typical street scene from Istanbul in Turkey. Such authentic moments, featuring elderly gentlemen sitting on wooden benches, have been a familiar sight in the cityscape of this metropolis on the Bosphorus for decades. – 1989

In the streets of Istanbul, one often comes across street vendors selling the characteristic ring-shaped bread to passers-by. The city’s location on the Bosphorus, where the Sea of Marmara meets the Black Sea and where Europe meets Asia Minor, has shaped its development; as Constantinople and Byzantium, it enjoyed centuries of prosperity. Istanbul’s many architectural monuments bear witness to this history, which is comparable in significance to that of Rome. – 1989

The Egyptian Bazaar in Istanbul was built on the site of the former Venetian Market, opposite the Galata Bridge and behind the Yeni Mosque. The elongated building is topped with low domes. Amidst an atmosphere of oriental scents and mystery, every conceivable item is on offer here, including, of course, a wealth of spices. – 1989

Istanbul’s Grand Bazaar is situated in the heart of the old town. The first market halls were built in 1461 on the site of an old wooden market square and were used exclusively for the wool and silk trade. Gradually, however, the bazaar opened up to other trades and developed into a proper neighbourhood. This gigantic marketplace has eighteen gates, and nearly four thousand shops are crammed along the grid-like layout of arcades, streets and alleys. In the past, specific sections were reserved for each trade, which is no longer so strictly the case today. Nevertheless, carpet dealers, jewellers, leather goods and clothing sellers, for example, are still concentrated in certain sectors of the bazaar. – 1989

This impressive globe is on display at the Correr Museum in Venice. It makes it easy to trace the route of the Spice Route from Asia to Europe. - 1989

Just as in the days of the Spice Route, sailing ships occasionally drop anchor in the Giudecca Canal in Venice – a sight that is, sadly, becoming increasingly rare. During the heyday of the Spice Route in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance (from around the 13th to the end of the 15th century), Venice was the undisputed economic hub and the wealthiest city in Europe. The Republic of Venice held the European monopoly on the trade in Asian spices such as pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and ginger. Venetian merchants did not travel to India or China themselves. They purchased the luxury goods at the end points of the Asian caravan and sea routes in the Middle East – primarily in ports such as Alexandria (Egypt), Aleppo and Antioch (Syria). Through skilful diplomacy and treaties with the ruling Mamluks, they secured exclusive access rights there. – 1989

Marco Polo’s house in Venice, with its doorway showing strong Byzantine influence (in the corner in the background). In the centre of the courtyard, the Corte Seconda del Milion, stands a well. The house was built in the 11th/12th century, and Marco Polo was born in Venice in 1254. He travelled extensively throughout Asia and lived for nearly seventeen years at the court of Kublai Khan, the Great Khan of China. After returning to his hometown, he took part in a naval battle against Genoa and was taken prisoner. During his exile in Liguria, he dictated his memoirs, the ‘Book of the Marvels of the World’. This masterful travelogue remains to this day an inexhaustible source of information on the history, customs and traditions of Asia in the Middle Ages. Marco Polo died in 1324 as a highly respected man, known to his fellow citizens as ‘Messer Marco Milione’, as he was in the habit of estimating the Great Khan’s treasures in millions of gold ducats. – 1989

The Fondaco dei Tedeschi in Venice – built between 1505 and 1508 on the ruins of an older warehouse and, until 2025, set to become a luxury shopping centre and cultural hub near the Rialto Bridge – was, at the beginning of the 15th century, effectively a finance and customs ministry that played a fundamental role in the spice trade. – 1989

A 13th-century relief depicting a camel driver in Moorish attire, located on a wall of the Palazzo dei Cammello (or Palazzo dei Mastelli) in Venice. It is easy to imagine that the dromedary’s pack-sack is filled with spices. – 1989

Statue of a Levantine merchant on the corner of Campo dei Mori and Fondamenta dei Mori. The three statues at Campo dei Mori form part of the Mastelli family coat of arms; the Mastellis were renowned merchants during Venice’s heyday. Naturally, a spice shop is a must! – 1989

This statue of a Moor (Moro) or Levantine merchant is one of the three figures in the Mastelli group on the Campo dei Mori and stands next to the house of the painter Tintoretto, opposite the Rio della Sensa. This leading master of Venetian Mannerism was born in Venice in 1512 and died there in 1594. – 1989

In Venice, the hub of the medieval spice trade, food shops still sell bunches of fiery hot peperoncini on the high street, in keeping with a centuries-old tradition. – 1989

Sailing cutters and picturesque houses in Amsterdam’s Zandhoek district. This scene could have been painted by a Dutch master from the era when the Dutch rose to become Europe’s leading maritime power thanks to their dominance of the spice trade. – 1990

The Oostindische Huis in Amsterdam, the headquarters of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC), is located on Oude Hoogstraat. The Governor-General and the Council of the Indies used to meet in the halls above the entrance. The building and its owners were closely linked to the cultivation, transport and sale of spices. – 1990

The famous, extremely picturesque Hooy spice shop in Amsterdam has been in business since 1743. It is one of the few remaining reminders of a bygone era when spices played a dominant role in the economic life of the Netherlands. – 1990

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